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Essentials of Understanding Psychology 9th Edition By Robert Feldman PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 1 Chapter 5: Learning 2 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 15: Classical Conditioning • What is learning? • How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses? 3 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 15: Classical Conditioning • Learning – Relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience 4 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Basics of Classical Conditioning • Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response • Ivan Pavlov 5 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Basics of Classical Conditioning • • • • • Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) 6 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior • “Little Albert” – John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) • Phobias • Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 7 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Acquisition, Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery 8 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Extinction • Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears – Spontaneous Recovery • Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning 9 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Generalization and Discrimination • Stimulus Generalization – Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus • Stimulus Discrimination – Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not 10 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning: Challenging Basic Assumptions • John Garcia – Found that some organisms – including humans – were biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick • Learned taste aversion 11 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 MODULE 16: Operant Conditioning • What is the role of reward and punishment in learning? • What are some practical methods for bringing about behavior change, both in ourselves and in others? 12 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Operant Conditioning • Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences 13 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Thorndike’s Law of Effect • Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated 14 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Basics of Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement – Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated • Reinforcer – Primary – Secondary 15 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Reinforcement & Punishment 16 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Basics of Operant Conditioning • Positive Reinforcers – Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response • Negative Reinforcers – Unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated 17 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 The Basics of Operant Conditioning • Punishment – Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again • Positive punishment – Adding something • Negative punishment – Removing something 18 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Pros & Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment • Pros of Punishment: – Appropriate for dangerous behaviors – Temporary suppression may provide opportunity to reinforce more desirable behavior • Cons of Punishment: – Frequently ineffective – Physical punishment has harmful side effects • Fear, lowered self-esteem – Does not relay information about alternative, more desired behavior 19 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous reinforcement schedule – Reinforced every time it occurs • Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule – Reinforced some but not all of the time – Two Categories • number of response • amount of time 20 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-Ratio Schedule – Reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses • Variable-Ratio Schedule – Occurs after a varying number of responses 21 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-Interval Schedule – Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed – Overall rates of response are relatively low • Variable-Interval Schedule – Time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed 22 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning • Stimulus control training – Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence • Discriminative stimulus – Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response 23 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally • Process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior – Animal training – Textbook organization 24 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Biological Constraints on Learning • You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just Any Trick – Biological Constraints – Evolutionary explanations of behavior 25 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Comparing Classical & Operant Conditioning 26 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification • Behavior Modification – Technique for promoting frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing unwanted ones • Techniques – – – – – – Identify goals and target behaviors Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data Select a behavior-change strategy Implement the program Keep careful records after the program is implemented Evaluate and alter the ongoing program Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 27 MODULE 17: Cognitive Approaches to Learning • What is the role of cognition and thought in learning? 28 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Cognitive Learning Theory • Approach that states learning is best understood in terms of thought processes, or cognitions • People develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response 29 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Latent Learning • New behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it • Learning occurs without reinforcement 30 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation • Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model – Social cognitive approach • Albert Bandura • Mirror Neurons – Fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior 31 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter? • Recent research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively 32 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Does Culture Influence How We Learn? • Relational learning style – People master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon • Analytical learning style – People master material best when they can carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation 33 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011 Relational vs. Analytical Styles 34 Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011