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Essentials of
Understanding Psychology
9th Edition
By Robert Feldman
PowerPoints by Kimberly Foreman
Revised for 9th Ed by Cathleen Hunt
Copyright McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011
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Chapter 5:
Learning
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MODULE 15:
Classical Conditioning
• What is learning?
• How do we learn to form associations between stimuli
and responses?
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MODULE 15:
Classical Conditioning
• Learning
– Relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about
by experience
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The Basics of Classical Conditioning
• Type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to
elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that
naturally brings about that response
• Ivan Pavlov
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The Basics of Classical Conditioning
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Neutral stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response
(CR)
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Applying Conditioning Principles to
Human Behavior
• “Little Albert”
– John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920)
• Phobias
• Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
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Acquisition, Extinction
& Spontaneous Recovery
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Extinction
• Occurs when a previously conditioned response
decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
– Spontaneous Recovery
• Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of
rest and with no further conditioning
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Generalization and Discrimination
• Stimulus Generalization
– Occurs when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is
similar to the original conditioned stimulus
• Stimulus Discrimination
– Occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another
that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not
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Beyond Traditional Classical Conditioning:
Challenging Basic Assumptions
• John Garcia
– Found that some organisms – including humans – were
biologically prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that
smelled or tasted like something that made them sick
• Learned taste aversion
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MODULE 16:
Operant Conditioning
• What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?
• What are some practical methods for bringing about
behavior change, both in ourselves and in others?
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Operant Conditioning
• Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened
or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable
consequences
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Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more
likely to be repeated
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The Basics of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
– Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated
• Reinforcer
– Primary
– Secondary
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Reinforcement & Punishment
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The Basics of Operant Conditioning
• Positive Reinforcers
– Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an
increase in a preceding response
• Negative Reinforcers
– Unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the
probability that a preceding response will be repeated
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The Basics of Operant Conditioning
• Punishment
– Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior
will occur again
• Positive punishment
– Adding something
• Negative punishment
– Removing something
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Pros & Cons of Punishment:
Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment
• Pros of Punishment:
– Appropriate for dangerous behaviors
– Temporary suppression may provide opportunity to reinforce
more desirable behavior
• Cons of Punishment:
– Frequently ineffective
– Physical punishment has harmful side effects
• Fear, lowered self-esteem
– Does not relay information about alternative, more desired
behavior
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement schedule
– Reinforced every time it occurs
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
– Reinforced some but not all of the time
– Two Categories
• number of response
• amount of time
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-Ratio Schedule
– Reinforcement is given only after a
specific number of responses
• Variable-Ratio Schedule
– Occurs after a varying number of
responses
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-Interval Schedule
– Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time
period has elapsed
– Overall rates of response are relatively low
• Variable-Interval Schedule
– Time between reinforcements varies around some average
rather than being fixed
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Discrimination and Generalization in
Operant Conditioning
• Stimulus control training
– Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus,
but not in its absence
• Discriminative stimulus
– Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response
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Shaping:
Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
• Process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding
closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
– Animal training
– Textbook organization
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Biological Constraints on Learning
• You Can’t Teach an Old Dog Just Any Trick
– Biological Constraints
– Evolutionary explanations of behavior
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Comparing Classical & Operant Conditioning
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Behavior Analysis and Behavior
Modification
• Behavior Modification
– Technique for promoting frequency of desirable behaviors and
decreasing unwanted ones
• Techniques
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Identify goals and target behaviors
Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data
Select a behavior-change strategy
Implement the program
Keep careful records after the program is implemented
Evaluate and alter the ongoing program
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MODULE 17:
Cognitive Approaches to Learning
• What is the role of cognition and thought in learning?
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Cognitive Learning Theory
• Approach that states learning is best understood in terms
of thought processes, or cognitions
• People develop an expectation that they will receive a
reinforcer after making a response
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Latent Learning
• New behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some
incentive is provided for displaying it
• Learning occurs without reinforcement
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Observational Learning:
Learning Through Imitation
• Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or
model
– Social cognitive approach
• Albert Bandura
• Mirror Neurons
– Fire when one observes another person carrying out a behavior
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Violence in Television and Video Games:
Does the Media’s Message Matter?
• Recent research supports the claim that watching high
levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible
to acting aggressively
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Does Culture Influence How We
Learn?
• Relational learning style
– People master material best through exposure to a full unit or
phenomenon
• Analytical learning style
– People master material best when they can carry out an initial
analysis of the principles and components underlying a
phenomenon or situation
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Relational vs. Analytical Styles
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