Download BSC 2085 Lab Manual Copy - Lake

Lake-Sumter
State College
Anatomy and Physiology I
BSC 2085 Lecture and Lab
Lab Manual
Spring 2017
BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Index
1. Osmolarity and pH...P. 3
2. Histology...P. 20
3. Skeletal System: Axial Skeleton...P. 27
4. Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton...P. 37
5. Skeletal System: Articulations and Major Joints...P. 44
6. Muscular System: Major Skeletal Muscles...P. 55
7. Nervous System: Sheep Brain Dissection...P. 61
8. Nervous System: Spinal Cord Reflexes and Cranial Nerves...P. 73
9. Endocrinology...P. 79
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Osmolarity and pH
Objectives:
1. Describe a solution and define the solute and solvent
2. Use molarity to describe relative concentration
3. Perform calculations for the molarity of solutions
4. Define osmolarity and describe the relative osmolarity of solutions
5. Define and describe membrane potentials
6. Define an acid and a base
7. Describe acid base reactions
8. Calculate the pH of solutions
Introduction:
The maintenance of solute concentration and pH is an essential homeostatic function accomplished
through the concerted effort of nearly every body system. Solute concentration is necessary for many
of the physiologic mechanisms discussed throughout this semester including water balance, powering
passive transport, establishing membrane potentials, and maintaining pH.
Part A. Solutions
Introduction
A solution is a homogenous (same throughout) mixture of different substances. Every solution is
composed of two parts:
1. The Solvent – the more abundant substance, usually water (an aqueous solution)
2. The Solute – the less abundant substance (particles) suspended in the solvent
The total solution is the sum of these two parts as described by the formula below.
100% Solution = % Solute + % Solvent
The solute is always the interesting part of the solution as most solutions of biological consideration
are aqueous solutions. This means that the solvent of these solutions is water. The cell cytoplasm,
blood plasma, saliva, urine, and CSF are all examples of aqueous solutions. The solvent of these
solutions is water and the solute portion of these solutions includes the many molecules including
proteins, electrolytes, protons, etc. dissolved in the water solvent. Therefore, if we know that a
solution is 10% solute, such as a 10% glucose solution, we also know that the remaining 90% is
solvent, H2O.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Part B. Concentrations of Solutions
Introduction
The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount solute suspended in a given volume of
solvent. A concentrated solution has a high proportion of solute dissolved in the solvent while a dilute
solution has a lower proportion of solute dissolved in the solvent. The concentration of solution is
measured in Molarity (M). Molarity is the number of moles of a particular solute per liter of solution
as described by the formula below:
Molarity (M) = moles of solute (mol) / liters of solution (L)
Because a solution is a homogeneous mixture, molarity is constant throughout the solution. Also,
molarity does not depend on the amount of solution - any fraction of a solution will have a the same
molarity as the original solution. Practice with the concepts and calculations of molarity below.
B1. What happens to the molarity (M) of a solution if more solvent is added?
Answer: M decreases as solvent is added because the L’s of solution, the denominator in the Molarity
Formula, increases. The solution is becoming more diluted as solvent is added without solute.
B2. What happens to the molarity (M) of a solution is more solute is added?
Answer: M increases as solute is added because the moles of solute (mol), the numerator in the
Molarity Formula, increases. The solution is becoming more concentrated as solute is added.
B3. Some of the solution is dumped down the drain, what happens to the molarity of the
remaining solution?
Answer: M does not change because solutions are homogenous mixtures. Any fraction of a solution
has the same concentration as the rest of the solution. Dumping solution down the drain removes
solute
and solvent proportionately.
B4. Describe how a patient’s blood molarity would be affected if they becomes dehydrated?
________________________________________________________________________________
B5. Describe how a patient’s blood molarity would be affected by an injury causing severe
blood loss?
________________________________________________________________________________
B6. A glucose solution has a volume of 250 mL and contains 0.70 mol C6H12O6. What is the
molarity of the solution?
Answer: Use the Molarity Formula to solve. Be sure to make any necessary conversions to obtain
moles of solute and liters of solution before using the formula:
250 mL x 1L/1000 mL = 0.25 L’s of solution
Molarity (M) = moles of solute (mol) / liters of solution (L)
Molarity (M) = 0.70 mol C6H12O6 / 0.25 L = 2.8 mol/L glucose
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B7. A saline solution contains 0.90 g NaCl dissolved in 100 mL of solution. What is the
molarity of the solution?
Answer: Use the Molarity Formula to solve. Be sure to make any necessary conversions to obtain
moles of solute and liters of solution before using the formula:
0.90 g NaCl x 58 g/mol = 0.02 mol NaCl
100 mL x 1L/1000 mL = 0.1 L’s of solution
Molarity (M) = moles of solute (mol) / liters of solution (L)
Molarity (M) = 0.02 mol NaCl / 0.1 L = 0.2 mol/L NaCl
B8. A solution has a volume of 2.0 L and contains 36.0 g of glucose. What is the molarity of
the solution?
Answer: Use the Molarity Formula to solve. Be sure to make any necessary conversions to obtain
moles of solute and liters of solution before using the formula:
36 g glucose x 180 g/mol = 0.2 mol glucose
Molarity (M) = moles of solute (mol) / liters of solution (L)
Molarity (M) = 0.2 mol glucose / 2 L = 0.1 mol/L glucose
Part C. Osmolarity
Introduction
Osmolarity is a concept similar to molarity. Osmolarity is also a measure of concentration of solution
typically expressed as osmoles per liter of solution (Osm/L). The important difference between
molarity (M) and osmolarity (Osm/L) is that molarity only considers the concentration of one single
type of solute at a time. In other words, each solute dissolved in a solution has is own molarity.
Osmolarity is the sum of each individual solute molarity and accounts for the total concentration of
the solution. Any particle (molecule, ion, etc.) in an aqueous solution will displace water and is thus
described as an osmotically active particle. Osmolarity is the concentration of all osmotically
active particles (n) in a solution as the formulas below describe.
Osmolarity = Total # of moles of osmotically active particles in soln. / L soln.
Osmolarity (mOsm/L) = Σ (n M)
Where n = number of particles, M = molar concentration
The number of osmotically active particles (n) describes the number of particles that are produced
if a molecule dissociates, or breaks apart, in an aqueous solution. Ionic molecules more readily
dissociate in aqueous solutions than covalent molecules. And n represents the number of ions
released when the molecule dissociates. For example, NaCl dissociates in water to form Na+ and Clions. Therefore, each NaCl molecule produces two osmotically active particles, one Na+ ion and one
Cl- ion. Therefore, n = 2 for NaCl. As another example, MgCl2 is another ionic molecule. In an
aqueous solution each MgCl2 dissociates to form 1 Mg+2 ion and 2 Cl- ions. Therefore, n = 3 for
MgCl2. Covalent molecules, such as glucose, do not readily dissociate. They remain as one particle
in aqueous solution so n = 1. Every molecule has it’s own value for n and it will be provided to you if
you need it for this class…it’s more of a chemistry thing. Practice with the concepts and calculations
of osmolarity:
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C1. Red blood cell cytoplasm is an aqueous solution of two carbohydrates, glucose and
fructose. The respective solute concentrations are as follows: 0.07 M glucose; 0.08 M
fructose. What is the osmolarity of red blood cell cytoplasm? __________ Osm/L
Answer: Osmolarity (Osm/L) = (n M)glucose + (n M)fructose = (1 . 0.07) + (1 . 0.08) = 0.15 Osm/L
(Hint: Covalent molecules such as carbohydrates do not dissociate in aqueous solutions. Each
molecule contributes 1 osmotically active particle (n=1), and the concentration (M) is provided.)
C2. Blood plasma is an aqueous solution of NaCl and glucose. The respective solute
concentrations are as follows: 0.06 M NaCl; 0.03 M glucose. What is the osmolarity of blood
plasma? __________ Osm/L
Answer: Osmolarity (Osm/L) = (n M)NaCl + (n M)glucose = (2 . 0.06) + (1. 0.03) = 0.15 Osm/L
(Hint: Ionic molecules such as salts dissociate into their individual ions in aqueous solutions.
Each NaCl molecule contributes two osmotically active particles, Na+ and Cl-, so n = 2 for NaCl.)
Osmolarity is a more accurate description of the relative concentrations of solutions and should be
used when determining tonicity and osmotic forces. Based on your calculations above, you can see
that the blood plasma is isotonic to the cytoplasm of the red blood cells, even though the two
solutions contain different concentrations of different solutes.
Red blood cell cytoplasm (0.15 Osm/L) is
isotonic to the blood plasma (0.15 Osm/L).
For more practice and review draw arrows to indicate the motion of water (osmosis) into or out of the
red blood cell (RBC) for the two scenarios below.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
The blood plasma = 0.05 Osm/L
The blood plasma = 0.25 Osm/L
RBC cytoplasm = 0.15 Osm/L
RBC cytoplasm = 0.15 Osm/L
C3. What would happen to the RBC in Scenario 1? C4. What would happen to the RBC in Scenario 2?
a. Crenate (shrivel)
a. Crenate (shrivel)
b. Swell or lyse (burst)
b. Swell or lyse (burst)
c. Remain unchanged
c. Remain unchanged
Answer: b; The blood plasma is hypotonic to the RBC Answer: a; The blood plasma is hypertonic to the
cytoplasm.
RBC cytoplasm.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
C5. How would osmosis occur between the blood plasma in the capillary and the surrounding tissue
fluid in the following example?
a. Water would osmose from the blood into the surrounding tissues.
b. Water would osmose from the the surrounding tissue fluid into the blood.
c. Water would osmose between the blood and surrounding tissues in equilibrium.
Tissue Fluid = 0.20 Osm/L
Answer: a; The blood is hypotonic to the surrounding tissues so water is pulled out of the blood into the
tissues. This imbalance may cause tissue swelling known as edema.
C6. How would osmosis occur between the blood plasma in the capillary and the surrounding tissue
fluid in the following example?
a. Water would osmose from the blood into the surrounding tissues.
b. Water would osmose from the the surrounding tissue fluid into the blood.
c. Water would osmose between the blood and surrounding tissues in equilibrium.
Tissue Fluid = 0.10 Osm/L
Answer: b; The blood is hypertonic to the surrounding tissues so water is pulled from the tissues into the
blood. This imbalance may cause hypertension, or high blood pressure, as the volume of blood
increases in within the blood vessels.
These examples demonstrate the importance of concepts in concentration and solutions, membrane
transport, and osmotic balance for understanding anatomy and physiology. Many physiological
process are based on these principles.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Part D: Membrane Potentials
In biological systems sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) are two of the most important solutes cells use
to maintain homeostasis in regard to water and fluid balance. Through the active transport of Na+
and K+ pumps, cells typically maintain relatively high intracellular fluid (ICF) concentrations of K+ and
low ICF concentrations of Na+ compared to the extracellular fluid (ECF) - recall from the biology the
Na+/K+ pumps of the cell membrane. Refer to the diagram below and draw arrows to describe the
motion (diffusion) of K+ and Na+ though the selectively permeable cell membrane.
D1. Which of the following best describes the
diffusion of K+ if K+ channels are open?
a. K+ diffuses from ICF to the ECF
b. K+ diffuses from ECF to the ICF
c. Na+ diffuses from the ECF to the ICF
d. K+ does not move
D2. Which of the following best describes the
diffusion of Na+ if Na+ channels are open?
a. Na+ diffuses from ICF to the ECF
b. Na+ diffuses from ECF to the ICF
c. K+ diffuses from the ICF to the ECF
d. Na+ does not move
Answer: a; K+ moves along its concentration gradient Answer: b; Na+ moves along its concentration
from the ICF to the ECF
gradient from the ECF to the ICF
Electrolytes are not just particles, they are charged particles. Therefore, in addition to regulating
osmolarity, electrolytes are also used to generate electrical potentials at the cell membrane. The
relative electrolyte concentration differences between the ICF and ECF result a difference in electrical
charge between the inside and outside of a cell. Most cells have a relative negative charge on their
insides compared to their outside environment. This charge difference at the cell membrane is known
as membrane polarity or a membrane potential. Cell membranes are like small batteries in that
they have a positive and a negative side. Cells membranes that carry a membrane potential are said
to polarized. Polarized cells are like charged batteries. Just like there are two oppositely charged
poles in a battery, cells use this potential energy to power many physiological processes including
muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction. Refer to the diagram below.
Here you can see how the electrolyte gradient between the inside and the outside creates a
membrane potential of -60 millivolts (mV) inside the cell compared to the outside environment.
Na+ and K+ are the most signifiant electrolytes so they are the only ones considered in this image, but
the relative concentrations of many other electrolytes and charged solutes all contribute to the overall
membrane potential including Cl-, Ca2+, protons (H+), and proteins.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Different types of cells maintain different degrees of membrane potentials. For example, one type of
cardiac muscle cell maintains a membrane potential of -90 mV while certain neurons maintain a
membrane potential of -60 mv. The membrane potential that a cell maintains is known as the resting
membrane potential (RMP).
In order to get the energy out of a battery you need to connect the opposite poles together with a
wire. Charged particles move through the wire traveling from one end of the battery to the other until
the oppositely charged poles equalize. At this point your battery is dead because it has been
depolarized as both poles are now equally charged and charged particles are no longer driven to
move through the wire. You’ll need to recharge, or repolarize, your battery.
Membrane potentials work in a similar way to batteries. In order to use the membrane potential you
need to connect the inside of a polarized cell to the outside environment. This is done by opening ion
channels to allow charged particles to move between the ICF and ECF. Opening the appropriate ion
channels can polarize or depolarize a cell. Here again Na+ and K+ have important roles as Na+
channels typically depolarize a cell and K+ channels typically repolarize a cell. Here’s how, a cell with
a -60 mV RMP can be depolarized by opening a Na+ ion channel. When the channel is open Na+
diffuses into the cell according to its concentration gradient. As Na+ ions accumulate in the cell these
positively charged particles reduce the negative RMP, i.e. the RMP becomes less negative. If the Na+
channels allow enough Na+ to enter, the cell the RMP could climb all the way to 0 mV. At this point
the cell has been completely depolarized.
A depolarized cell needs to be recharged, or repolarized. To repolarize the cell Na+ channels close
and K+ channels open. K+ will diffuse out of the cell according to its concentration gradient. As the
positively charged K+ ions leave the cell the membrane potential begins to drop again. The K+
channels will allow enough K+ to leave the cell until the membrane potential returns to cell’s RMP and
the cell is now polarized once again. Phases of depolarizations and polarizations at cell membranes
power many processes in the body including a heart beat, the contraction of a muscle or the impulse
conduction of a nerve. Refer to the images below for a description and graphical representation of
polarization and depolarization.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
In some instances it’s possible to ‘overcharge’ a cell. This occurs when a cell’s membrane potential is
taken beyond it’s usual or resting membrane potential. When this happens the cell said to be
hyperpolarized. For example, cell with a -60 mV resting membrane potential can be hyperpolarized
if extra Na+ is allowed to enter during a depolarization phase. During depolarization, Na+ channels
typically only stay open long enough to allow enough Na+ to enter the cell until the membrane
potential reaches 0 mV. At that point the Na+ channels usually close, but what would happen to the
membrane potential if the the Na+ channels stayed open? Na+ would continue to enter the cell and
the membrane potential would continue to climb, or become less negative. In fact, if the membrane
potential is already at 0 mV and Na+ continues to enter the cell, then the membrane potential inside
the cell would become positively charge relative to the outside environment. The cell is now
hyperpolarized.
A cell can also be hyperpolarized during a depolarization phase if K+ channels allow excess K+ to
leave the cell. For example, if a cell with a membrane potential currently at 0 mV needs to be
repolarized to it’s RMP of -60 mV, K+ channels will usually allow enough K+ to leave the cell until the
RMP is restored. At that point the K+ channels close. If K+ channels fail to close, excess K+ will leave
the cell and the membrane potential will continue to drop beyond the RMP of -60 mV. The cell is
again hyperpolarized.
Another way to hyperpolarize a cell is to allow another type of electrolyte to enter or leave the cell.
For example, a cell with a -60 mV RMP can be hyperpolarized by allowing Cl- ions to enter the cell.
As these negatively charged particles enter the cell the already negative membrane potential
becomes even more negative. The -60 mV membrane potential is taken to an even more negative
value. Once again, the cell has been hyperpolarized.
Hyperpolarizing a cell modifies its electrophysiology and is used for regulating many process
including controlling the heart rate and adapting nerve impulse conduction. Refer to the graph below
to see how a cell with a -60 mV resting membrane potential can be hyperpolarized in either a positive
or negative direction.
D3. Which of the following best describes
D4. Which of the following best describes
+
membrane potential when K channels are
membrane potential when Na+ channels are
open?
open?
a. The cell membrane potential polarizes
a. The cell membrane potential polarizes
b. The cell membrane potential depolarizes
b. The cell membrane potential depolarizes
Answer: a; The cell membrane potential polarizes,
or becomes greater. As K+ leaves the cell
the -60mV membrane potential becomes
even more negative.
Answer: b; The cell membrane potential depolarizes,
or becomes equalized. As Na+ enters the
cell the -60mV membrane potential becomes
less negative.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Part E: Acids and Bases
Introduction:
In order to understand acids and bases it is important to review the structure of the smallest and most
simple of atoms, the hydrogen atom. The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Recall that this means
hydrogen is composed of one proton. And because the hydrogen atom has a neutral charge, it also
has one electron.
If a hydrogen atom looses its electron, only a proton remains
If a hydrogen atom looses a proton, only an electron remains
, represented as H+.
, represented as e-.
In addition, if a hydrogen atom is part of a molecule and the hydrogen atom looses a proton or
electron what remains of the molecule now carries a charge. This is because the molecule will now
have an unequal number of protons and electrons. For example, The water molecule is a neutral
molecule as it has a total of 10 protons and 10 electrons.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
A hydrogen atom of a water might loose a proton giving rise to a lone proton (H+) and a hydroxide ion
(-OH).
When water looses a proton (H+) the resulting hydroxide ion (-OH) has a total of 9 protons and 10
electrons. The electron of the hydrogen atom that lost its proton is still attached to the molecule.
Essentially, a water molecule looses a proton (H+) to become a hydroxide ion (OH-).
H 2O
water
H+ +
-OH
proton hydroxide ion
In a similar example carbonic acid looses a proton to become bicarbonate.
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3-
carbonic acid looses a proton to become bicarbonate
Likewise, if a molecule gains an extra proton, the molecule now carries a positive charge.
NH3 + H+
NH4+
ammonia gains a proton to become ammonium
An acid is a compound that releases protons (H+) when in solution. Observe the reactions of
hydrochloric acid and carbonic acid below:
HCl
(hydrochloric acid)
H2CO3
(carbonic acid)
H+ + Cl(proton) (chloride ion)
H+ + HCO3(proton)
(bicarbonate)
Both hydrochloric acid and carbonic acid are compounds that release protons.
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A base is a compound that accepts, or binds, protons from solution. Observe the reaction below:
NH3 + H+
NH4+
ammonia gains a proton to become ammonium
Ammonia is a base because it picks up protons to form ammonium.
HCO3- + H+
(bicarbonate) (proton)
H2CO3
(carbonic acid)
Bicarbonate is a base because it picks up protons to form carbonic acid.
Bases are also described as compounds that release hydroxide ions (-OH) into solution. This is
because a hydroxide ion (-OH) will bind protons (H+) in solution to form water (H2O). Observe the two
reactions with the base, sodium hydroxide, below:
Reaction 1
NaOH
(sodium hydroxide)
-OH
Reaction 2
-OH
+
Na+
(hydroxide ion) (sodium ion)
+ H+
H 2O
Many acid and base reactions are reversible and often occur as acid-base pair reactions. Review the
carbonic acid and bicarbonate reactions below:
H2CO3
(carbonic acid)
HCO3- + H+
(bicarbonate)
H+ + HCO3(proton)
(bicarbonate)
H2CO3
(proton)
(carbonic acid)
These two reactions can be simplified and combined by removing the common bicarbonate ions and
protons on opposite sides of each of the equations. The resulting acid-base reaction can be
represented with a double arrow:
H2CO3
(carbonic acid)
H+ + HCO3(proton) (bicarbonate)
This demonstrates how some substances can behave as both acids and bases. This is an important
property of carbonic acid, phosphate, and proteins in their role as biological buffers for pH balance in
the human body. Proteins are very important as buffers in the blood and tissues and have several
mechanisms to resist pH changes. Recall that proteins are composed of individual amino acids,
represented below.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
The amine group (-NH2) acts as a base when there is an abundance of protons in solution:
The carboxyl group (-COOH) acts as an acid when the solution contains few protons:
Finally, the R group of animo acids many be an acidic or basic constituent of the protein. Albumin, a
liver protein, is one of the most significant physiological buffers for acid-base balance in the body.
Part F: pH
Introduction:
The pH scale is based on the unique properties of water. A water molecule spontaneously looses
protons to produce one hydrogen (H+) ion and one hydroxide (–OH) ion as shown in formula 1 below:
Formula 1.
H2O
H+ +
-OH
The water molecule behaves as an acid and a base at the same time as it looses protons (H+) to
produce hydroxide ions (-OH). Because water is an acid and a base at the same time it is described
as neutral in terms of acidity or basicity. The pH scale was developed to compare the acidic or basic
qualities of other solutions to neutral water.
The reaction above is reversible and water molecules may also bind protons (H+) to form another ion
of the water molecule, the hydrondium ion (H3O+), as shown in formula 2 below:
Formula 2.
H2O + H+
H3O+
(hydronium ion)
Because water self-ionizes, it exists in three forms: H2O, H3O+, -OH. In pure water, most of the water
molecules exist in the most stable H2O form. Water molecules self-ionize to a very small extent so
that only a few ions exist at any given time. It has been calculated that in pure water at 25oC the
concentration of protons, [H+], in water is 1.0x10-7M H+. Also, a hydroxide ion -OH is created each
time a proton is released by H2O (refer to formula 1 above). Therefore, the concentration of
hydroxide ions, [-OH], also equals 1.0x10-7M. Therefore, the concentration of protons, [H+], and the
concentration of hydroxide ions, [-OH], are equal in pure water at standard conditions as shown
below:
[H+] = [OH-] = 1.0x10-7M
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
pH is a system of convention for the simple expression of the concentration of protons, [H+], in a
given solution as described in the formula for pH below:
pH = -log [H+]
or
pH = 1/log [H+]
pH is the inverse log of the proton concentration of a solution. The pH scale is used to simplify the
very small numbers associated with such small proton concentrations. Follow the calculation of the
pH of pure water below:
[H+] of H2O = 1.0x10-7M
pHH2O = -log [H+]
pHH2O = -log [1.0x10-7]
log of 1.0x10-7 = 0.0000001 = -7
pHH2O = -(-7)
pHH2O = 7
Thus the pH of pure water is 7. You should recognize 7 as neutral on the pH scale. This is because
the pH scale is based on water which is neutral because it behaves as both an acid and a base.
Part G: Acidic and Basic Solutions
Introduction:
An aqueous solution in which the concentrations of protons, [H+], and hydroxide ions, [-OH], are
equal is considered to be a neutral solution. An aqueous solution that contains a higher concentration
of protons than hydroxides or base is considered to be an acidic solution. And an aqueous solution
that contains a higher concentration of hydroxides or base than protons is considered to be a basic
solution.
In any aqueous solution the concentrations of protons, [H+], and hydroxide ions, [-OH], are
interdependent. As the concentration of one increases, the concentration of the other must decrease
proportionately because water is being formed as the protons and hydroxides combine to reform
water. In pure water the product of the proton concentration and the hydroxide ion concentration
equals 1.0x10-14M2 as demonstrated in the formula calculations below:
[H+] = [OH-] = 1.0x10-7M
[H+] x [-OH] = 1x10-14M2
(1x10-7M H+) x (1x10-7M -OH) = 1x10-14M2
For any aqueous solution, the product of the proton concentration and the hydroxide ion
concentration must equal also equal 1.0x10-14M2. Refer the formula to solve the practice problems
below:
[H+] x [-OH] = 1x10-14 M2
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Example 1:
If the [H+] in an aqueous solution is 1.0x10-5M, what is the [-OH]?
Answer: 1.0x10-5M x [-OH] = 1x10-14
[-OH] = 1x10-9
Example 2:
If the [-OH] an aqueous solution is 1.0x10-3M, what is the [H+]?
Answer: [H+] x 1.0x10-3M = 1x10-14M2
[H+] = 1x10-11
Practice Problems:
Refer to the pH formula to calculate the pH of the solutions in the preceding practice questions:
pH = -log [H+]
Practice Problem 1: [H+] = 1.0x10-5M
Answer: pH = -log (1.0x10-5)
or
pH = _____
pH = 5
Practice Problem 2: [H+] of = 1.0x10-11M
Answer: pH = -log (1.0x10-11)
pH = 1/log [H+]
pH = _____
pH = 11
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Part H: The pH Scale
Introduction:
The pH of neutral water is 7; therefore, 7 is neutral on the pH scale. Not all solutions are neutral,
other solutes in an aqueous solution act as acids or bases, dissociating to release protons or
hydroxide ions causing the solution to become acidic or basic. The pH Scale is inversely proportional
to [H+]:
As [H+] increases, pH value decreases; therefore, acidic solutions have a lower pH value.
As [H+] decreases, pH value increases; therefore, basic solutions have a higher pH value
This is because pH is based on the log on the proton concentration. As proton concentrations get
larger, the log value becomes lower and pH decreases. For example:
[H+] = 1.0x10-2M
log (1.0x10-2) = -2
pH = 2
Acidic
[H+] >> [-OH]
[H+] = 1.0x10-5M
log (1.0x10-5) = -5
pH = 5
Acidic
[H+] > [-OH]
[H+] = 1.0x10-7M
log (1.0x10-7) = -7
pH = 7
Neutral
[H+] = [-OH]
[H+] = 1.0x10-9M
log (1.0x10-9) = -9
pH = 9
Basic
[H+] < [-OH]
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function Saladin 5th ed.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Histology
Objectives:
1. Histological examination and recognition of major tissues types
2. Relate tissue structure to tissue function
3. Describe the general location of major tissue types
4. Identify major tissue types and specified tissue features upon microscopic examination
Introduction:
Histology is the study of the microscopic structures of tissues, and how tissues are arranged into
organs. There are four major types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
Epithelial tissues form membranes that cover organs, line body cavities and the lumen of hollow
organs. The epithelium may have functions for protection, secretion, excretion, or absorption and the
cellular arrangement, structures and features of the epithelium is highly specialized to its function.
The epithelium is differentiated as an avascular tissue covering overlaying a connective tissue with a
basement membrane between the connective tissue and epithelial layers.
Connective tissues are the most abundant type of tissue in the body. Connective tissues provide
structure, support, and protection and are differentiated cells that produce an acellular matrix with
varying degrees of vascularization. The matrices of connective tissues have properties specific to the
functions of the tissue.
Muscle tissue is composed of elongated muscle cells. The muscle cell cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
contains contractile proteins which shorten the elongated muscle cells when activated. Coordinated
control of muscle tissue contraction and relaxation provides support and movement. There are three
types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
Nervous tissue is highly specialized to sense and receive information from the environment and
respond to changes by transmitting chemical and electrical signals to other body tissues and organs.
Nervous tissue is composed of two cell groups, neurons and neuroglial cells.
Neurons are the most important cells for receiving and responding to environmental stimuli. Neurons
typically receive signals at the dendrites, multiple branching cell processes that deliver signals to the
cell body. Neurons typically transmit signals to other organs through axons, a projection from the cell
body that may extend great distances to deliver signal signals to remote locations in the body.
Neuroglial cells are supporting cells for the neurons. These cells maintain the environment for the
neurons and aid in the development, growth, repair, and immunity of the nervous system.
Methods
1. Observe the selected histological tissue slides for the major tissue types. Complete the outline
provided in Part A to describe and identify each of the the following tissues. You are responsible
for identifying and describing the major tissue types listed for the Histology Practical Exam.
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Materials:
1. Histology Lab PowerPoints
2. Light microscope
3. Tissue slides:
Epithelial Tissues
Connective Tissues
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
a. Lung alveoli
a. Hypodermis
a. Skeletal muscle
a. Cerebrum
b. Capillary
b. Adipose tissue
b. Tongue
b. Cerebellum
c. Kidney, cortex
c. Spleen
c. Hypodermis
c. Spinal cord
d. Small intestine
d. Tendon
d. Large artery
e. Large intestine
e. Dermis
e. Small intestine
f. Lip
f. Renal capsule
f. Heart
g. Vagina
g. Aorta
h. Epidermis
h. Laminar bone
i. Mammary gland
i. Trachea, hyaline cart.
j. Sweat gland
j. Pinna, elastic cart.
k. Male urethra
k. Intervertebral disk, fibrocart.
l. Trachea
l. Blood
m. Urinary bladder
Part A:
1. Epithelial Tissues
A. Simple Squamous Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.1 a, b, c, d; Slides: Lung alveoli, capillary)
Location (Where it is found):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of tissue it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify):
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
B. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.2 a, b; Slides: Kidney cortex)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
C. Simple Columnar Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.3 a, b; Slides: Small intestine, large intestine)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Apical specializations: microvili (brush border)
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
• Goblet cells
D. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.6 a, b; Slides: Lip, vagina, epidermis)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Apical specializations: keratinization of epidermis
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
E. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.7 a, b; Slides: Mammary gland, sweat gland)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
F. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.8 a, b; Slides: Male urethra)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
G. Pseudostratified Columnar (Respiratory) Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.5 a, b; Slides: Trachea)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Goblet cells
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Apical specializations: cilia
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
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H. Transitional Epithelium
(Text: Fig. 5.9 a, b; Slides: Urinary bladder)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Epithelium
• Apical surface (lumen) and basal surface
• Basement membrane
• Connective Tissue
2. Connective Tissues
A. Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
(Text: Fig. 5.18 a, b; Slides: Hypodermis)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Collagen fibers
• Fibroblasts
B. Adipose Tissue
(Text: Fig. 5.19 a, b; Slides: Adipose tissue)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Adipocyte nucleus and cytoplasm, plasma membrane
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C. Reticular Connective Tissue
(Text: Fig. 5.20 a, b; Slides: Spleen)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Reticular fibers
• Fibroblasts
D. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
(Text: Fig. 5.21 a, b; Slides: Tendon)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Collagen fibers oriented in direction of singular force
• Fibroblasts
E. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
(Slides: Dermis, renal capsule)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Collagen fibers in all directions
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F. Bone (Osseous) Tissue
(Text: Fig. 5.26 a, b; Slides: Laminar bone )
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Osteocytes
• Matrix
G. Cartilage Tissue
1. Hyaline Cartilage
(Text: Fig. 5.23 a, b; Slides: Trachea hyaline cartilage)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Chondrocytes
• Matrix
2. Elastic Cartilage
(Text: Fig. 5.24 a, b; Slides: Pinna elastic cartilage)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Chondrocytes
• Matrix
• Elastic fibers
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3. Fibrocartilage
(Text: Fig. 5.25 a, b; Slides: Intervertebral disk fibrocartilage)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Chondrocytes in rows
• Matrix
H. Blood
(Text: Fig. 5.27 a, b; Slides: Blood)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Red blood cell
• White blood cell
• Platelet
• Plasma matrix
3. Muscle Tissue
A. Skeletal Muscle
(Text: Fig. 5.28 a, b; Slides: Skeletal muscle, tongue)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Long muscle cells (fibers) with multiple peripheral nuclei
• Striations
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
B. Smooth Muscle
(Text: Fig. 5.29 a, b; Slides: Large artery, small intestine)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Muscle cells with central nuclei
• No striations
C. Cardiac Muscle
(Text: Fig. 5.30 a, b; Slides: Heart)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Branching muscle cells with single, central nuclei
• Striations
• Intercalated disks
4. Nervous Tissue
Neurons and Neuroglial Cells
(Text: Fig. 5.31 a, b; Slides: Cerebrum, cerebellum, spinal cord)
Location:
Function:
Differentiation:
Identification:
• Neuron cell body with axons and dendrites
• Nuclei of neuroglial cells
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Skeletal System: Axial Skeleton
Objectives:
1. Identification of select bones and bone features in the human skeleton and skull
2. Describe the location, articulation, and motion of the skeleton
3. Describe the passage of select nerves and blood vessels though the skeleton
Introduction:
The skeletal system including the bones, ligaments, and tendons provide support, protection and
movement for the body body. The bones also serve as a reservoir for the important electrolytes
calcium (Ca2+) and phosphates (PO43-) and contains the bone marrow for hematopoiesis.
The features on the surface of a bone indicate the position, location, and function of the bone. Bony
processes like projections, protuberances, lines and plates usually indicate points of attachment for
tendons, ligaments, and muscles. These points of attachment are located on the bones to provide
the largest mechanical advantage. Smooth surfaces on the face of a bone such as condyles and
fossa represent articulations. Canals and foramen provide passages for blood vessels and nerves.
Materials:
1. Skull
2. Articulated skeleton
3. Disarticulated skeleton
Methods:
This is a comprehensive list of the gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures of the axial skeleton
studied in lab that are testable material for the Skeletal System Practical Exam. Structures on this list
marked with an asterisk(*) are not found on the anatomical models. Locate the structures on the
anatomical models using the space provided in the lab manual to record any notes that will help you
as you prepare for the exams and practicals.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
1. Skull (22 total bones)
A. Cranial Bones (8)
a. Frontal (1)
Supraorbital foramen/ notch
Frontal Sinuses*
b. Parietal (2)
Middle Meningeal Artery Impression
c. Occipital (1)
Foramen Magnum for brain stem
Occipital Condyles
Occipital Protuberance
Hypoglossal Canal for associated Hypoglossal Nerve (cranial nerve 12)
d. Temporal (2)
Mastoid Process
Styloid Process
Zygomatic Process of the Temporal Bone
Mandibular Fossa
Internal Acoustic Meatus for associated Facial Nerve (cranial nerve 7) and
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (cranial nerve 8)
External Acoustic Meatus
Carotid Canal for Internal Carotid Artery
Jugular Foramen for Internal Jugular Vein
Stylomastoid Foramen
Petrous Part of Temporal Bone
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
e. Sphenoid (1)
Sella Turcica
Sphenoid Sinuses*
Greater Wing of Sphenoid Bone
Lesser Wing of Sphenoid Bone
Optic Canal for associated Optic Nerve (cranial nerve 2) and Ophthamic
Artery
Foramen Rotundum for associated Maxillary Branch of Trigeminal Nerve
(cranial nerve 5)
Foramen Ovale for associated Mandibular Branch of Trigeminal Nerve
(cranial nerve 5)
Foramen Spinosum for associated Middle Meningeal Artery
Foramen Lacerum (foramen bordered by Temporal and Sphenoid bones)
Superior Orbital Fissure for associated Oculomotor (CN 3), Trochlear (CN
4), Abducens (CN 6), and Trigeminal (CN 5 – Ophthalmic Division) Nerves
Lateral Pterygoid Plate
Medial Pterygoid Plate
f. Ethmoid (1)
Perpendicular Plate
Crista Galli
Cribiform Plate for associated Olfactory Nerves (CN I)
Ethmoidal Sinuses*
Superior Nasal Concha
Middle Nasal Concha*
Orbital Plate of Ethmoid Bone
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
B. Facial Bones (14)
a. Maxilla (2)
Palatine Process of Maxilla
Inferior orbital fissure
Maxillary Sinus*
Alveolar Processes/border
Incisive Foramen
Inferior Nasal Concha
b. Palatine (2)
(Form posterior hard palate, horizontal
portions of palatines form the floor of the
nasal cavity. Perpendicular portions of
palatines form lateral walls of nasal cavity)
Greater Palatine Foramen
c. Zygomatic (2)
(Form lateral walls of the floor of the orbits)
Temporal Process of Zygomatic Arch
Inferior Orbital Fissure (fissure bordered by Zygomatic, Sphenoid, and Maxilla)
d. Lacrimal (2)
e. Nasal (2)
f. Vomer (1) (Forms posterior and inferior portions of nasal septum with perpendicular
plate of ethmoid)
h. Mandible (1)
Ramus
Alveolar Processes/Border
Mandibular Condyle
Mandibular Foramen
Coronoid Process
Mental Foramen
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
C. Sutures
a. Coronal
b. Sagittal
c. Lambdoid
e. Squamous
2. Middle Ear Bones (6 bones)*
a. Malleus (2)*
b. Incus (2)*
c. Stapes (2)*
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
4. Vertebral Column (26 bones)
The 26 bone of the vertebral column can be grouped together and studied as seven distinct bones:
Cervical vertebrae including the Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2), Thoracic vertebrae, Lumbar vertebrae,
Sacrum, and Coccyx.
The spinal column has a natural double-S curvature. A spinal lordosis has a convex curvature
anteriorly and a concave curvature posteriorly. A spinal kyphosis have a concave curvature anteriorly
and a convex curvature posteriorly.
Cervical lordosis
Thoracic kyphosis
Lumbar lordosis
Sacral kyphosis
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
The cervical vertebrae are the first seven vertebrae (C1 - C7)
The thoracic vertebrae are the next 12 vertebrae (T1 - T12)
The lumbar vertebrae are the lower 5 vertebrae (L1 - L5)
The sacrum is composed of 4 or 5 fused vertebrae
The coccyx is the inferior portion of the spinal column
Identify the following structures on a typical vertebra and identify
vertebrae as being cervical, thoracic or lumbar:
Anterior vs. Posterior
Superior vs. Inferior
Body
Pedicle
Lamina
Spinous Process
Transverse Process
Superior Articular Facet
Vertebral Foramen
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The
Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are copyrightfree as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
A. Cervical Vertebra (C1 - C7)
All cervical vertebrae have a transverse foramina for passage of the vertebral artery and
typically have a bifid spinous process. The superior articular facets of all cervical vertebrae
face Back, Up, and Medially (BUM)
a. Atlas (C1)
Facet for Dens
Articulating process for occipital condyle
b. Axis (C2)
Dens (Odontoid Process) w/ anterior articulating facet for atlas
c. Seventh cervical vertebra (C7)
Vertebral prominens (spinous process of C7)
B. Thoracic Vertebra (12)
The superior articular facets of all thoracic vertebrae face Back, Up, and Laterally
(BUL). Each of the 12 thoracic vertebrae articulate with a rib pair.
a. T1 – T12
Facet for rib tubercle (smooth surface on transverse processes)
Facet for rib head (smooth surfaces on lateral vertebral body)
C. Lumbar Vertebra (5)
The superior articular facets of all thoracic vertebrae face Back, Up, and Medially (BUM)
!
!
D. Sacrum (1)
Anterior vs. Posterior
Auricular surface
Superior Articular Process/Facet
Tubercles of Median Crest
Inferior Articular Process/Facet
Sacral Hiatus
Sacral Promontory
Sacral foramen
Sacral Canal
E. Coccyx (1)
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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5. Thoracic Cage (25 bones – 12 Rib Pairs, 1 Sternum)
A. Ribs (24)
There are 12 rib pairs in both males and females.
a. True Ribs (Vertebrosternal Ribs – Rib Pairs 1-7)
All true ribs directly articulate with the sternum (vertebrosternal).
b. False Ribs (Vertebrochondral Ribs – Rib Pairs 8-12)
False rib pairs 8-10 indirectly connect to the sternum at a cartilage bridge
(vertebrochondral).
• Floating Ribs (Vertebral Ribs)
The anterior ends of false rib pairs 11 and 12 is free, no sternal attachment.
Identify the following structures on a typical rib.
Head
Neck
Tubercle
Shaft
Anterior (Sternal) End vs Posterior (Vertebral) End
"
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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B. Sternum (1)
The sternum is described in three sections.
a. Manubrium
The first rib pair connects to the
manubrium
Clavicular Notch
Suprasternal Notch
b. Body
Rib pairs 2-7 connect at the body
Sternal Angle at junction
of rib pair 2
c. Xiphoid Process
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
36
BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Skeletal System: Appendicular Skeleton
Objectives:
1. Identification of select bones and bone features in the human skeleton
2. Describe the location, articulation, and motion of the skeleton
3. Describe the passage of select nerves and blood vessels though the skeleton
Introduction:
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder, pelvis, arms, hands, feet, and legs.
Materials:
1. Articulated skeleton
2. Disarticulated skeleton
Methods:
This is a comprehensive list of the gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures of the appendicular
skeleton studied in lab that are testable material for the Skeletal System Practical Exam. Structures
on this list marked with an asterisk(*) are not found on the anatomical models. Locate the structures
on the anatomical models using the space provided in the lab manual to record any notes that will
help you as you prepare for the exams and practicals.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
1. Pectoral Girdle
A. Scapula (2)
The scapula forms the shoulder joint. The articulation of the scapula with the
clavicle is only boney joint that holds the arm to the axial skeleton. This allows the shoulder
joint to be extremely flexible.
Anterior vs. Posterior
Superior Border
Inferior Angle
Lateral (Axillary) Border
Medial (Vertebral) Border
Coracoid Process
Coracoid means ‘crow-like’.
The anterior view of the
coracoid process resembles
the silhouette of a crow.
Posterior
Anterior
Acromion Process
Scapular Spine
Glenoid Cavity
Supraspinous Fossa
Infraspinous Fossa
B. Clavical (2)
The lateral end of clavical articulates with the acromion
process of the scapula.
Sternal (Medial) End
Acromial (Lateral) End
Lateral view, humerus removed
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
2. Upper Limbs
A. Humerus (2)
Head
Anatomical Neck of Humerus
Surgical Neck of Humerus
Greater Tubercle of Humerus
Lesser Tubercle of Humerus
Intertubercular Groove
Deltoid Tuberosity
Coronoid Fosssa
Olecranon Fossa
Lateral Epicondyle of Humerus
Medial Epicondyle of Humerus
Trochlea
B. Radius (2)
Head of Radius
Radial Tuberosity
For attachment of the biceps tendon
Styloid Process of Radius
Points to the thumb
Ulnar Notch of Radius
C. Ulna (2)
Olecranon Process
Coronoid Process
Trochlear Notch
Radial Notch
Head of Ulna
Styloid Process of Ulna
Points to the pinky finger
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
3. Hands
A. Carpals (16)
Carpal bones form the wrist joint with radius and ulna.
a. Scaphoid (2)
b. Capitate (2)
The capitate forms the
‘capstone’ in the arch of the
carpal bones
c. Trapezoid (2)
d. Trapezium (2)
The trapezium is next to the
thumb
e. Triquetrum (2)
f. Pisiform (2)
g. Lunate (2)
h. Hamate (2)
B. Metacarpals (10)
Proximal End vs.
Distal End
C. Phalanges (28)
Proximal vs.
Middle vs. Distal
Phalanges
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon
Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are copyright-free as long as they
are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
4. Pelvic Girdle
The pelvic girdle supports the weight of the head and torso and protects organs of the urinary
and reproductive systems. It also serves as a point of muscle attachment for muscles of the
legs, spine, abdomen, and pelvic floor. The pelvic girdle is formed by three bones: two Os
coxae and the sacrum. Together these three bones form a bowl with a superior brim opening
up to a canal inferiorly. The female pelvis usually shorter and broader than the male.
"
!
Female Pelvis
Male Pelvis
A. Os Coxae (2)
The os coxae are formed by the fusion of three bones: the Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis.
Acetabulum
Obturator Foramen
Pelvic Brim
a. Ilium (2)
Sacroiliac Joint
Iliac Crest
Iliac Fossa
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine (ASIS)
Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine (AIIS)
Posterior Superior Iliac Spine (PSIS)
Posterior Inferior Iliac Spine (PIIS)
Great Sciatic Notch (and association with sciatic nerve)
b. Ischium (2)
Ishial Spine
Ishial Tuberosity
Lesser Sciatic Notch
c. Pubis (2)
Pubic Arch
Pubic Symphysis
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
5. Lower Limbs
A. Femur (2)
Head of Femur
Anatomical Neck of Femur
Surgical Neck of Femur
Fovea Capitis
Greater Trochanter of Femur
Lesser Trochanter of femur
Intertrochanteric Line
Gluteal Tuberosity
Linea Aspera
Medial Epicondyle of Femur
Lateral Epicondyle of Femur
Medial Condyle of Femur
Lateral Condyle of Femur
Intercondylar Fossa
Patellar Surface
B. Tibia (2)
Medial Condyle of Tibia
Lateral Condyle of Tibia
Tibial Tuberosity
Intercondylar Eminence
Anterior Crest
Medial Malleolus of Tibia
C. Fibula (2)
Head of Fibula
Lateral Malleolus
D. Patella (2)
Anterior Surface vs.
Posterior Surface
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical
Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P.
Cull, ed., 1989) and are copyright-free as long as they are used for
educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
6. Feet
A. Tarsals (14)
a. Calcaneus
b. Talus
c. Navicular
d. Cuboid
e. Lateral Cuneiform
f. Intermediate Cuneiform
g. Medial Cuneiform
B. Metatarsals (10)
Proximal End vs. Distal End
C. Phalanges (28)
Proximal vs. Middle vs. Distal Phalanges
"
"
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Skeletal System: Articulations and Major Joints
Objectives:
1. Define and describe the categories of articulations.
2. Describe the articulations and anatomical structure of major synovial joints.
3. Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion of synovial major joints.
Introduction:
Joints, or articulations, are the junctions between bones. The joints are classified into three groups
based on their structure and degree of mobility: (1) Fibrous joints are immoveable joints between
boney plates, such as the sutures of skull. (2) Cartilaginous joints are immoveable but more flexible
articulations where bones are connected through a cartilage junction, such as the costochondral
joints of the ribs to the sternum. (3) Synovial joints are flexible joints, moved by the action of the
muscles. There are several types of synovial joints based on their design and the motions they
produce. The classes of synovial joints include the ball-and-socket, condyloid, gliding, hinge, pivot,
and saddle joints. This lab discusses the structure and motions of several of the major joints.
Materials:
1. Atlas
2. Articulated skeleton
3. Disarticulated skeletons
4. Joint models
a. Shoulder
b. Elbow
c. Hip
d. Knee
e. Ankle
5. Colored pencils
6. Modeling clay
7. Mounting pins
8. Labels
9. Soap and water/hand sanitizer
10.Willing lab parter
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
1. Shoulder Joint
Methods:
1. The glenohumeral joint is this type of joint synovial joint: _________________________
2. Refer to your atlas to sketch and label the listed anatomical components of the joint including the
major bones ligaments, tendons, bursae, and muscles of action.
a. Four rotator cuff muscles c. Scapula
1. Supraspinatus*
d. Humerus
2. Infraspinatus*
e. Subdeltoid bursa
3. Teres minor
f. Glenohumeral ligaments (3)
4. Subscapularis
g. Coracohumeral ligament
b. Clavicle
i. Loose joint capsule
j. Deltoid muscle on post. scapula
h.Transverse humeral ligament
Right Shoulder, Anterior view
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
3. Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion:
a. Tests for Normal Range of Motion (ROM):
1. Flexion = 180o (first 120o is glenohumeral, last 60o is scapulothoracic)
2. Extension = 40o
3. Abduction = 180o (first 120o glenohumeral, last 60o is scapulothoracic)
4. Adduction = 30o
5. External Rotation = 90o
6. Internal Rotation = 80o
4. Extensions: Clinical Correlations
a. Test for injury to the Rotator Cuff and Associated Structures:
1. Supraspinatus Tenosynovitis: Caused by inflammation of the supraspinatus muscle
and/or the muscle fascia. Abduct the shoulder with the thumb pointed upward. A
positive test is a painful arc of motion between 60-120o of motion.
2. Drop Arm Test: Tests for a torn rotator cuff muscle. Abduct the arm to 90o. Have lab
partner slowly lower their arm, but if there is a torn rotator cuff muscle the arm drops.
They are unable to lower their arm slowly.
3. Frozen Shoulder Syndrome: Occurs with reduced mobility at the shoulder joint. With
one hand, passively abduct your partner’s arm and monitor scapular motion with your
other hand. Normally, there will be more glenohumeral motion with abduction than
scapulothoracic motion (2:1 respectively). Increased scapulothoracic motion
indicates a frozen shoulder.
4. Subdeltoid Bursitis: Pain upon palpation of the subdeltoid bursa. The subdeltoid
bursa can be palpated under the acromion process from the anterior.
5. Bicipital Tendinitis: Inflammation of the biceps tendon. Flex the elbow to 90o. Have
lab partner supinate their forearm against resistance. Pain in the bicipital groove at
the head of the humerus indicates bicipital tendinitis.
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2. Forearm Joints
Methods:
1. The joints at the forearm include these types of joint synovial joints:
a. Humeroulnar joint: _________________________
b. Radioular joint: _________________________
2. Refer to your atlas to sketch and label the listed anatomical components of the joint including the
major bones ligaments, tendons, bursae, and muscles of action
a. Tendon of biceps brachii
f. Joint capsule
k. Anular ligament
b. Tendon of triceps brachii
g. Synovial membrane
c. Trochlea of humerus
h. Articular cartilage
d. Head of radius
i. Ulnar (medial) collateral ligament
e. Olecranon process of ulna
j. Radial (lateral) collateral ligament
A. Humeroulnar joint
Anterior Elbow, Extended
Posterior Elbow, Extended
Lateral Elbow, Flexion; Hand Supinated
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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B. Radioular
joint
Anterior, Supinated
Lateral Medial
Posterior, Supinated
Anterior, Pronated
Medial Lateral
Medial Lateral
3.Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion:
a. Tests for Normal Range of Motion (ROM):
1. Flexion = 150o (120o glonhumeral, 60o scapulothoracic)
2. Extension = 0o to 5o
3. Pronation = 80o to 90o
4. Supination = 80o to 90o
4. Extensions: Clinical Correlations
a. Pain during movement with normal range of motion is commonly caused by:
1. Bursitis - inflammation of a bursa.
2. Arthritis - narrowing of the joint space and loss of cartilage in the elbow.
3. Strains - a muscle becomes overstretched and tears.
4. Tendonitis - inflammation and injury to the tendons.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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3. Hip Joint
Methods:
1. The acetabulofemoral joint is this type of joint synovial joint: _________________________
2. Refer to your atlas to sketch and label the listed anatomical components of the joint including the
major bones ligaments, tendons, bursae, and muscles of action.
a. Head of femur
f. Round ligament
b. Greater and lesser trochanter of femur g. Fovea capitis
c. Acetabulum of coxa
h. Acetabular labrum
d. Articular cartilage
i. Joint capsule
e. Iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, transverse acetabular ligaments
Right hip, Anterior view
3. Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion:
a. Tests for Normal Range of Motion (ROM):
1.Extension = 30o 2.Flexion = 90o with leg extended, 120o with knee bent
3. Abduction = 45o 4.Adduction = 35o
5.External Rotation = 45o (rotate the leg medially across the opposite leg)
6.Internal Rotation = 35o (rotate the leg laterally at the hip for internal rotation)
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4. Lower Leg Joints
Methods:
1. The joints of the knee include these types of joint synovial joints:
a. Tibiofemoral joint: _________________________
b. Patellofemoral joint: _________________________
2. Refer to your atlas to sketch and label the listed anatomical components of the joint including the
major bones ligaments, tendons, bursae, and muscles of action.
a. Medial and lateral condyles of femur
f. Joint capsule
b. Medial and lateral condyles of tibia
g. Medial and lateral collateral ligaments
c. Head of fibula (not part of the knee)
h. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments
d. Articular cartilage
i. Medial and lateral menisci
e. Patellar ligament
Knee, Lateral view
Anterior
Posterior
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2085 Lab Manual
Knee, Anterior view
Medial
Knee, Posterior view
Lateral
Lateral
Medial
3.Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion:
a. Tests for Normal Range of Motion (ROM):
1.Flexion = 140o
2.Extension = 0o
4. Extensions: Clinical Correlations
a. Anterior drawer sign: tests the anterior cruciate ligament. While your partner is seated on a
bench or table with leg bent at the knee, grasp the leg near just distal to the knee. Gently pull
anteriorly. Flexibility in the anterior direction may indicate ACL injury.
b.Posterior drawer sign: tests the posterior cruciate ligament. Gently push the lower leg
posteriorly just distal to the knee. Flexibility in the posterior direction may indicate PCL injury.
c.Varus and Valgus stress test: tests integrity of medial and lateral collateral ligament tests.
With the leg extended, apply gentle force on the lower leg just distal to the knee joint. Medial
flexibility at the knee suggests a compromised lateral collateral ligament. Lateral flexibility
suggests a compromised medial collateral ligament.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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5. Ankle Joints
Methods:
1. The joints of the ankle include these types of joint synovial joints:
a. Talocrural joint:
1. Tibiotalar (medial) joint: _________________________
2. Fibulotalar (lateral) joint: _________________________
b. Talocalcaneal (subtalar) joint: _________________________
2. Refer to your atlas to sketch and label the listed anatomical components of the joint including the
major bones ligaments, tendons, bursae, and muscles of action.
a. Medial malleolus of tibia
e. Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments
b. Lateral malleolus of fibula
f. Medial (deltoid) ligament
c. Talus
g. Lateral (collateral) ligament
d. Calcaneus
h. Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
"
Medial ankle
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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"
Lateral ankle
Posterior ankle
"
Lateral
Medial
Lateral
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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Dorsal ankle
"
3.Describe and demonstrate the actions and range of motion:
a. Tests for Normal Range of Motion (ROM):
1. Dorsiflexion
2. Plantarflexion
3. Inversion
4. Eversion
* Degrees of range of motion do not apply to the ankle joint because motions at the ankle are the
result of movements at multiple joints. Observe for freedom of movement in all directions and
compare bilaterally.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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Muscular System: Major Skeletal Muscles
Objectives:
1. Identification of major muscles of the human body
2. Describe the location, origin, and insertion of the major muscles
3. Describe and demonstrate the actions of the major muscles
4. Describe the association of major muscle to the bones, nerves, and blood vessels
Introduction:
Controlled contractions of the skeletal muscles provide the mechanical force to move bones at the
joints. Muscles are attached to bones in ways that provide great mechanical efficiency and a wide
range of motions. The origin of a muscle refers to the point of muscle attachment. The insertion is
the point of muscle attachment that is moved by the force of the muscle. Muscles work in groups to
produce synergistic or antagonistic actions and can be organized and studied according to these
actions, such as flexors and extensors. The major skeletal muscles below are organized according to
their actions.
Materials:
1. Anatomical models: torso, leg, arm
2. Articulated skeleton
3. Stretch bands
4. Muscle Anatomy PowerPoints
Methods:
This is a comprehensive list of the major skeletal muscles studied in lab that are testable material for
the Muscular System Practical Exam. You should be able to identify the muscle, describe in general
the muscle origin and insertion, and describe the action of the muscle. Muscles and structures on
this list marked with an asterisk are not found on the anatomical models and will be discussed in lab.
Locate the muscles and structures on the anatomical models using the space provided in the lab
manual to record any notes that will help you as you prepare for the exams and practicals.
A. Muscles of Facial Expression
Frontalis
Orbicularis oculi
Buccinator
Orbicularis oris
Platysma*
Occipitalis
B. Muscles of Mastication
Masseter
Temporalis
Medial pterygoid*
Lateral pterygoid*
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C. Muscles for Motion of the Head and Cervical Spine
a. Flexors
Sternocleidomastiod
b. Extensors and Rotators (Capitis group)
Splenius capitis*
lateral
Semispinalis capitis*
Spinalis capitis*
medial
D. Muscles for Extension of Spine
a. Lateral Group (Illiocostalis group)
Illiocostalis cervicis*
superior
Illiocostalis thoracis*
Illiocostalis lumorum*
inferior
b. Intermediate Group (Longissimus group)
Longissimus capitis*
superior
Longissimus cervicis*
Longissimus thoracis*
inferior
c. Medial Group (Spinalis group)
Spinalis capitis*
superior
Spinalis cervicis*
Spinalis thoracis*
inferior
d. Erector spinae
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E. Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle
a. Superficial
Trapezius
Deltoid
Latissimus dorsi
b. Deep
Levator scapulae
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Teres major
Rhomboid minor
Rhomboid major
F. Muscles for Motion of the Brachial Arm
a. Flexors
Coracobrachialis*
Pectoralis major
b. Extensors
Teres major
Latissimus dorsi
c. Abductors
Supraspinatus
Deltoid
d. Rotators
Subscapularis
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
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G. Muscles for Motion of the Forearm
a. Flexors
Biceps brachii
Brachialis
Brachioradialis
b. Extensors
Triceps brachii
c. Rotators
Supinator
Pronator teres
H. Muscles for Motion of the Hand and Digits
a. Flexors
Flexor carpi radialis
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor digitorum superficialis
Flexor pollicis longus
Flexor retinaculum
Palmaris longus
b. Extensors
Extensor carpi radialis longus
Exensor carpi radialis brevis
Extensor carpi ularis
Extensor digitorum
c. Rotators
Pronator teres
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I. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall
Rectus abdominis
superficial
External oblique
Internal oblique
Transverse abdominis
deep
Linea alba
J. Muscles for the Motion of the Thigh
a. Anterior Group (Flexors)
Psoas
Iliacus
b. Posterior Group (Extensors)
Gluteus maximus
superficial
Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus*
deep
c. Medial Group (Adductors)
Adductor brevis
superior
Adductor longus
Adductor magnus
inferior
Gracilis
d. Lateral Group (Abductors)
Tensor fasciae latae
Iliotibial tract (IT band)
e. Lateral (External) Rotators
Superior glemellus
Inferior glemellus
Piriformis
The piriformis muscle originates on the anterior sacrum, passes through the
sciatic notch and inserts onto the greater trochanter of the femur for external
rotation of the thigh. Inflation of the sciatic nerve can impinge on the sciatic
nerve causing a form of sciatica known as piriformis syndrome.
Obturator internus
Obturator externus
Quadratus femoris
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K. Muscles for Motion of the Leg
a. Flexors
Biceps femoris
lateral
Semitendinosus
superficial
Semimembranous
deep
Sartorius
medial
b. Extensors
Quadriceps femoris group
1. Vastus lateralis
lateral
2. Rectus femoris
3. Vastus medialis
medial
L. Muscles for the Motion of the Foot and Digits
a. Dorsiflexors
Tibialis anterior
Extensor digitorum longus
b. Plantarflexors
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Flexor digitorum longus
Plantaris
c. Invertor
Tibialis posterior
d. Evertor
Fibularis
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The Nervous System:
Sheep Brain Dissection
Objectives:
1. Identify major gross anatomical structures of the brain and spinal cord
2. Observe histological slides of nervous tissue
3. Compare the structure of the human brain to another mammalian brain
Introduction:
Central nervous system
In order to study the anatomy of the brain it is helpful to divide the brain into three major portions: the
cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and associated with higher order processes such as
sensory perception, memory, thought, judgment, and voluntary motor actions. Sulci and gyri serve as
landmarks that physically divide the cerebrum into five lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and
insula. These lobes also loosely delineate functional regions of the cerebrum.
The cerebellum is largest portion of the hindbrain and has functions in muscle control for balance and
coordination, sensory processing, timekeeping, hearing, and planning.
The brainstem has four major components: the diencephalon, midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata. The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The
diencephalon forms the falls of the lateral and third ventricles of the brain.
Materials:
Safety:
1.Anatomical models: brain
7.Dissection instruments kit 1. Close-toed shoes are required in lab
2.Light microscope
8.Dissection trays
2. Stow belongings out of work areas
3.Tissue slides:
9.Disposable gloves
3. Wear gloves and eye protection
4.Cerebral cortex
10.Protective eyewear
4. Dispose of the heart as instructed
5.Spinal cord
11.Lab coat/ apron
5. Wash the dissection tools and trays
6.Preserved sheep brain
12.Surface cleaner
6. Wash surface
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date: Due the day of the dissection
The Nervous System: Sheep Brain Dissection
Pre-Lab Exercises:
Part A: Short Answer.
Select the best term to complete the sentence.
1. The the brain and spinal cord compose the __________.
a. autonomic nervous system
b. peripheral nervous system
c. central nervous system
d. systemic nervous system
2. The white matter of the brain and spinal cord is composed of __________.
a. nerve cell bodies
b. myelinated axons
c. Schwann cells
d. glial cells
3. The spinal cord is located (anterior; posterior) to the vertebral body.
4. The arachnoid mater is located (superficial; deep) to the pia mater.
5. The Pons is located (superior; inferior; caudal; rostral) to the Midbrain.
Part B: Matching
a. Cerebral cortex
1. _____ Inferior section of diencephalon near pituitary gland
b. Corpus callosum 2. _____ Cerebral lobe located within the lateral sulcus
c. Falx cerebelli
3. _____ White matter tract connecting left and right hemispheres
d. Hypothalamus
4. _____ Thin layer of gray matter on surface of cerebrum
e. Insula
5. _____ Forms dural sinus separating cerebellar hemispheres
Pre-lab exercises continued on next page
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Part C: Labeling
Write the number next to the correct label for each of the gross structures of the brain:
a.
Central sulcus _____
g.
Hypothalamus _____
b.
Cerebellum _____
h.
Medulla oblongata _____
c. Pineal gland _____
i.
Occipital lobe _____
Cingulate gyrus _____
j.
Pituitary gland _____
e. Corpus callosum _____
k.
Pons _____
Fourth ventricle _____
l.
Frontal lobe _____
d.
f.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
End pre-lab
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Methods:
Part A: Histology
Observe the tissue slides for the brain and spinal cord sections and note the following:
A. Cerebral cortex, section
1. Pyramidal cell body
a. axon
b. neuroglial cell nuclei
B.Spinal cord, section
1. Gray matter
a. anterior, posterior, lateral horns
2.Central canal
3. White matter
4. Meninges
a. Dura mater
b. Arachnoid mater
c. Pia mater
5. Anterior root
6. Dorsal root
a. Dorsal root ganglia
"
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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Part B: Dissection Protocol:
Working in groups of two:
1. Obtain a preserved brain and rinse thoroughly with water to remove preservative. Examine the
surface of the brain for the meninges. If present, locate the dura mater - superficial thick layer,
arachnoid mater-thin, delicate later under dura mater, and pia mater - thin, vascular layer adhering
to the brain surface.
2. Remove remaining meninges and position the brain ventral face down on the dissecting tray to
locate the following:
1. Cerebral hemispheres
a. Frontal lobe
b. Parietal lobe
c. Temporal lobe
d. Occipital lobe
2. Gyri and sulci:
a. longitudinal fissure
b. central sulcus
c. pre-central gyrus
d. post-central gyrus
3. Cerebellum
4. Medulla oblongata
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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3. Separate the cerebral hemispheres along the longitudinal fissure to identify the corpus callosum.
4. Separate the cerebrum and cerebellum to identify the pineal gland and corpora quadrigemina.
5. Examine the ventral side of the brain to identify the following:
1. Olfactory bulbs
6. Infundibulum
2. Optic nerves
7. Pituitary gland (if present)
3. Optic chiasma
8. Midbrain
4. Optic tract
9. Pons
5. Mammillary bodies
6. Locate as many cranial nerves as possible.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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7. Section the brain sagittally along the midline to identify the following:
1. Cerebrum
a. cerebral cortex
b. cerebral white/gray matter
2. Cerebellum
a. gray matter of cortex
b. arbor vitae
3. Midbrain
a. corpora quadrigemina
b. cerebral peduncles
4. Pons
6. Olfactory bulb
10. Diencephalon
a. thalamus
b. epithalamus
c. hypothalamus
7. Lateral ventricle
11. Corpus callosum
8. Third ventricle
12. Infundibulum
9. Fourth ventricle
13. Pituitary gland
5. Medulla oblongata
8. Section one half of the brain along the coronal plane to identify the following:
1. Lentiform nucleus
2. Corpus striatum
9. Complete the labeling exercise and begin the post lab questions.
10. Clean-up/ Disposal:
1. Discard the gloves and brain in the trash.
2. Thoroughly rinse, wash, and return the dissection trays and tools.
3. Thoroughly wash your work surface.
4. Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
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Labeling Exercise
Cut out and use the provided labels and mounting pins to precisely tag each of the structures as you
locate them. Fill out the bottom half of the sheet and leave it next to your dissection so that your
instructor can check your labeling give you credit for your dissection technique and adherence to
protocol.
Printable Labels
* Tag the region where these structures are located as they are microscopic.
1. Longitudinal
fissure
8. Hypothalamus
15. Fourth ventricle
2. Corpus callosum
9. Optic chiasma
16. Cerebral aqueduct
3. Midbrain
10. Infundibulum
17. Cerebellum
4. Pons
11. Pituitary gland
18. Olfactory bulb
5. Medulla oblongata
12. Insula
19. Lentiform nucleus
6. Cingulate gyrus
13. Lateral ventricle
20. Corpus striatum
7. Thalamus
14. Third ventricle
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Nervous System:
Sheep Brain Dissection
Names and CRN of each member of the group:
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Date:__________________________________________
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:Due one week after dissection
The Nervous System:
Sheep Brain Dissection
Post Lab Exercises:
Part A: Discussion
1. Describe the location, structure and function of the corpus callosum. How does its structure relate
to its function (what is it composed of, myelinated or unmyelinated, etc.)?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. List the three major divisions of the diencephalon and briefly summarize the function of each.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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3.Compare and contrast fluent and nonfluent aphasia. Describe characteristics of each disorder and
the functional region of the cerebral cortex affected in each.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe the cells and structures involved in the production of cerebral spinal fluid in the central
nervous system.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the path of flow of the cerebral spinal fluid through the central nervous system and
describe how the CSF is returned to the blood circulation.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
Post lab exercises continued on next page
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6. Describe the function, structure, and cells that compose the blood-brain barrier.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the three locations of cerebral gray matter and summarize the functions of each.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
8. What types of neurons are found in the cerebral cortex. Describe the general functions of each.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
End post lab
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The Nervous System:
Sheep Brain Dissection
Grading:
Name:_________________________________________
Date:__________________________________________
Section:_______________________________________
Pre-Lab:
Part A: Short Answer: _____ / 5
Part B: Matching: _____ / 5
Part C: Labeling: _____ / 12
Dissection:
Labeling: _____ / 20
Dissection Technique: _____ / 9
Adherence to Protocol/ Clean-up: _____ / 9
Lab/Post-Lab:
Discussion: _____ / 40
Total: _____ / 100
Letter Grade:
Instructor:_______________________________________
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Nervous System: Reflexes and Cranial Nerves
Objectives:
1. Review and observe the functions of the twelve cranial nerves
2. Review and observe the functions of the spinal reflexes
Methods:
Before conducting any of these evaluations students must wash their hands and receive permission
from a willing lab partner. Students must wash their hands and wash or wipe all materials before
changing roles or lab partners and at the end of the lab.
Materials:
1. Vanilla extract
4. Gauze
2. Pen light
5. Tuning fork
3. Cotton swab
6. Reflex hammer
7. Long swab or tongue depressor
1. Assessment of the Olfactory Nerve (CN I)
Introduction:
The olfactory nerve supplies nerve endings through the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone to the
superior nasal concha and upper portion of the nasal septum for the sense of smell (olfaction). The
sense of olfaction is evaluated bilaterally by instructing your lab partner to close his or her eyes and
one nostril and smell a test substance (vanilla). Anosmia may indicate an olfactory nerve lesion.
2. Assessment of the Optic Nerve (CN II)
Introduction:
The optic nerve ends in the retina, the light receptor organ in the back of the eye. Visual acuity is
related to both external and internal eye structures and the coordination of ocular movements. Acuity
is measured with a Snellen eye chart. The individual being examined is asked cover one eye at a
time and read letter lines of decreasing sizes from a distance of 20 feet. Visual acuity is expressed
as ratio, such as 20/20. The top number describes the distance from which the individual read the
Snellen chart. The second number represents the distance at with a person with normal vision can
read the same chart.
Visual fields are tested through a confrontation visual field test. The examiner sits three feet in front
of the examinee, the examiner closes his or her right eye and the examinee closes their left eye. The
examiner holds up fists with the palms facing him or her. The examiner then shows the examinee
one or two fingers on each hand simultaneously and asks the examinee how many fingers he or she
sees. The examiner moves his or her hands from the upper right and left quadrants to the lower left
and right quadrants and the processes is repeated for the other eye. Both the examiner and the
examinee should see both of the examiners hands. Normal vision extends about 30o in all directions
of central fixation. There is a physiological blind spot about 15o to 20o temporal to central fixation
where the optic nerve meets the retina. If the examinee has trouble seeing one or both hands when
an examiner with normal vision is able to, this may indicate a depressed visual field known as a
scotoma.
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3. Assessment of the Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) and Trochlear Nerve (CN IV)
Introduction:
The oculomotor nerve innervates the medial, superior, and inferior rectus muscles and the inferior
oblique muscle which control eye movements. The oculomotor nerve also innervates the intrinsic
muscles of the eye for pupillary constriction.
The muscles of eye movement are evaluated by examining six diagnostic positions of gaze which
isolate the ocular muscle motions. The examiner holds the examinee’s chin steady with the left hand
and asks the examinee to follow the right hand as the examiner traces an “H” in the air with the index
finger approximately 15 to 18 inches from the examinee’s nose. From mid-nose, the examiner moves
his or her right hand one foot to the examinee’s left and pauses, then about 8 inches up and pauses,
then 16 inches down and pauses, eight inches up and pauses, and returns to mid-nose. The
examiner switches hands and these motions are repeated on the examinee’s right side. The
examiner observes the movement of both eyes in all directions, which should follow the finger
smoothly in all directions.
Pupillary reflexes are observes by evaluating the pupillary light reflex and the near reflex. The
pupillary light reflex can be observed by shining a pen light into the side of one of the examinee’s
eyes, using the nose to cast a shadow over the opposite eye. As the examiner shines into one eye,
he or she should note the pupillary constriction in the shaded eye. This reflex is tested bilaterally.
To observe the near reflex, the examinee focuses on some distant target and is then ask to focus on
a near target about 5 inches from the face. As the examiner brings the object (index finger) closer the
examinee’s nose, the eyes should converge and the pupils should constrict.
4. Assessment of the Trigeminal Nerve (CN V)
Introduction:
The trigeminal nerve provides sensory innervation to the face, nasal cavity, buccal mucosa, and the
teeth, and motor innervation to the muscles of mastication. The trigeminal nerve has three divisions:
the opthalmic division which supplies sensory innervation to the anterior face, conjunctiva and
cornea, and the anterior forehead and skull. The maxillary division supplies sensation to the cheeks
and lateral nose, upper teeth and maxilla, nasal pharynx and uvula. The mandibular division supplies
sensation to the chin, jaw, lower mouth, anterior tongue, and lower teeth. The motor division of the
mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles of mastication and the tensor
tympani muscle of the eardrum.
Three tests evaluate functioning of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve: the corneal reflex,
sensory function tests, and motor function tests. To evaluate the opthalmic division the corneal reflex
is tested. The tip of a cotton swab is stretched and twisted into a thin strand which is used to lightly
touch the cornea bilaterally. The corneal reflex causes the eye lids to quickly close.
Sensory function is tested by having the examinee close their eyes while the examiner gently touches
gauze to alternating sides of the forehead, cheeks, and jaw - testing all three subdivisions of the
nerve. The examinee is ask to acknowledge a sensation when they believe they were brushed by the
gauze. This procedure is can repeated with a toothpick. Motor function of the trigeminal nerve is
tested by having the examinee clench their teeth while the examiner bilaterally observes and palpates
the masseter and temporalis muscles. A unilateral weakness will cause the jaw to deviate toward the
side of a trigeminal nerve lesion.
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5. Assessment of the Abducens Nerve (CN VI)
Introduction:
The abducens nerve provides motor innervation to the lateral rectus muscle for lateral motion of the
eye. Function of the abducens nerve is evaluated by examining the six diagnostic positions of gaze.
6. Assessment of the Facial Nerve (CN VII)
Introduction:
The facial nerve innervates the facial muscles and provides taste to the anterior portion of the tongue.
The facial nerve also carries parasympathetic motor fibers to the salivary glands. To examine the
motor function of the facial nerve the examinee is asked to perform specific facial motions wile the
examiner watches for asymmetries. Facial asymmetries indicate lesions of the ipsilateral facial nerve.
The examinee is first asked to wrinkle his or her forehead, puff his or cheeks out against resistance
provided by the examiner who uses his or finder tips to push on the examinee’s cheeks, smile, and
hold their eyes closed against resistance while the examiner attempts to open them.
7. Assessment of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII)
Introduction:
The vestibulocochlear nerve provides for hearing, balance, and awareness of position
(proprioception). Auditory acuity is evaluated with a hearing test, the Rinne test, and the Weber test.
To test hearing the examinee is asked to hold down the tragus of one ear occluding the ear canal
while the examiner whispers into or rubs together his or her thumb and fingers next to the opposite
ear. The examinee is asked to respond as they hear the whisper or rubs. This test may be
performed more accurately with a tuning fork.
The Rinne test compares the examinee’s ability to hear sounds conducted through the air and
through bone. This allows the examiner to determine if a hearing deficit is the result a conductive
hearing loss, as with a blocked ear canal or damaged eardrum, or a neurological hearing loss.
The Rinne test is performed with a tuning fork (512-Hz). The examiner strikes the tuning fork and
applies the handle on the mastoid tip of the examinee. The examinee is asked to respond when they
can hear the noise and then again when it stops. As soon the examinee can no longer hear the noise
of the tuning fork the examiner places the tines of the vibrating fork in front of the external auditory
meatus. The tuning fork is not struck when it is moved from the mastoid to the external meatus. The
examinee is asked to again respond when they can hear the noise of the vibrating tines and again
when it stops. Normally, hearing is more acute through the air than through bone.
The Weber test evaluates bone conduction in both ears and can help determine if a hearing deficit is
due to a conductive or neural impairment. To perform the Weber test the examiner places the handle
of a vibrating tuning fork on the examinee’s forehead. The examinee is asked were they hear or feels
the sound best, in the middle of the head or toward one side or the other. Hearing the sound in the
middle of the head is the normal response. If the sound is louder in on side it is said to be lateralized.
A lateralized result may indicate hearing loss. The sound will be louder on the affected side if there is
conductive hearing loss. This is because a conductive problem in the affected air has lessened the
background noise of the environment, making the tuning fork sound louder on the affected. To
demonstrate this the examiner should have the examinee occlude one ear while the Weber test is
performed. The examinee will hear the tuning fork louder in the occluded ear.
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8. Assessment of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX)
Introduction:
The glossopharyngeal nerve supplies sensation and taste to the posterior tongue, sensation to the
pharynx, tympanic membrane, and parasympathetic fibers to the parotid gland. The
glossopharyngeal nerve can be evaluated by testing the gag reflex. The examiner uses a long swab
or tongue depressor to lightly touch of the back of the examinee’s throat which should elicit a gag
reflex. The examiner may also evaluate the the back of the throat while the examinee opens their
mouth and says, ‘Ah...’. The soft palate should be raised symmetrically on both sides and the uvula
should be midline.
9. Assessment of the Vagus Nerve (CN X)
The vagus nerve sends parasympathetic fibers to the organs of the chest and abdomen, motor fibers
to the the pharynx and larynx, and sensory fibers to the external ear canal and organs above the
pelvic cavity. Many of the functions of the vagus nerve are assessed along with assessment of the
glossopharyngeal nerve. Dysphonia, difficulty or disorders of the voice such as hoarseness, and
dysarthria, difficulty controlling the muscles for articulating words, may indicate a vagus nerve lesion.
10. Assessment of the Spinal Accessory Nerve (CN XI)
Introduction:
The spinal accessory nerve supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. To evaluate the
left spinal accessory nerve the examinee is asked to turn their head to the right against resistance as
the examiner places his or her hand on the examinee’s temple to provide slight resistance.
Weakness in turning the head may indicate a lesion on the contralateral accessory nerve. The right
spinal accessory nerve is evaluated by performing this test to the left. Next the examiner places both
hands on the examinee’s shoulders to provide resistance as the examinee elevates their shoulders.
As the examinee lifts their shoulders the examiner should notice the strength of the trapezius muscles
bilaterally.
10. Assessment of the Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII)
Introduction:
The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor innervation to the tongue. The examiner visually inspects the
examinee’s tongue as it rests on the floor of the mouth for fasciculations, spontaneous contractions,
which may indicate lesions of the hypoglossal nerve. To evaluate motor function of the hypoglossal
nerve the examinee sticks out their tongue and the examiner notes if the tongue deviates to either
side. Because the tongue muscles push rather than pull, the tongue will be pushed by the muscles of
the normal side to the side of the lesion.
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Part B: Assessment of the Reflexes
1. Assessment of the Deep Tendon Reflexes
a. Test of the Biceps Tendon Reflex
Introduction:The biceps tendon reflex is evaluated by having the examinee pronate and relax his or
her arm. The examiner, sitting in front of the examinee, supports the arm and firmly places his or
thumb over the biceps tendon in the antecubital fossa. The examiner strikes his or her thumb with
the reflex hammer and notes contraction of the biceps muscle and flexion of the forearm. This reflex
tests nerves at roots C5-C6.
b. Test of the Brachioradialis Tendon Reflex
Introduction:
The brachioradialis tendon reflex is tested by having the examinee
rest his or her arm on their knee. The examiner lightly strikes near
the styloid process of the radius about 2 inches above the wrist.
The examiner should observe for flexion at the elbow and supination
of the forearm. The reflex tests the nerves at roots C5-C6.
c. Test of the Triceps Tendon Reflex
Introduction:
To evaluate the triceps tendon reflex the examiner uses his or her
arm to support the examinee’s arm at the elbow. With the
examinee’s arm relaxed and flexed around 90o, the examiner lightly
taps the triceps tendon as it enters the olecranon process of the
ulna one or two inches above the elbow. The examiner should
observe contraction of the triceps and flexion of the forearm. This
reflex tests nerves at roots C6-C8.
d. Test of the Patellar Tendon Reflex
Introduction:
To evaluate the patellar tendon reflex the examinee sits on the edge of a chair with their legs dangling
flexed at the knees and hips. The examiner places one hand on the examinee’s quadriceps muscles
of one leg and strikes the patellar tendon of the same leg. The examiner should note contraction of
the quadriceps muscles and extension at the knee. This reflex tests nerves at roots L2-L4.
e. Test of the Achilles Tendon Reflex
Introduction:
The Achilles tendon reflex is evaluated by having the examinee sit with their legs dangling off the
edge of a chair. The legs should be flexed at the knees and hips. The examiner places one hand
under the examinee’s foot to dorsiflex the ankle. The Achilles tendon is struck with the hammer just
above its insertion onto the posterior calcaneus. The examiner should notice contraction of the calf
muscles and plantar flexion of the foot. This reflex examines nerves at roots S1-S2.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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2. Assessment of Abnormal Reflexes
a. Babinski’s Sign
Introduction:
Babinski’s sign is an abnormal, pathologic reflexive motion of the foot and toes in response to light
touch that occurs as a result of disease or lesion of the pyramidal tract. The lateral side of the sole of
the foot is stroked with a blunt object such as a closed pen or a key from the heel to the ball of the
foot and curved medially across the heads of the metatarsals. Normally the foot and big toe will
plantar flex. With the Babinski’s sign the big toe will dorsiflex and the other toes will splay laterally.
This reflex examines nerves at roots L5-S2.
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination
Swartz, M. H. 5th ed.
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Endocrinology
Introduction:
Endocrinology is the study of the system of glands in the body and the specific hormones they
secrete for the regulation of physiological processes and the maintenance of homeostasis. The
endocrine system can be organized into three major components: the hypothalamus, the pituitary
gland, and the endocrine glands found throughout the body. These glands their hormones facilitate
communication between remote cells and tissues of the body via the bloodstream. The endocrine
system also often works through close association with the nervous system, collectively known as the
neuroendocrine system. This communication is necessary to coordinate many of the physiological
processes for growth and development, reproduction, and the maintenance of homeostasis.
Homeostasis is achieved through the complicated interactions of hormones and the receptor cells of
the receiving tissues, known as effector organs.
Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to other tissues. Hormones
are broadly categorized according to the type of biomolecule from which they are synthesized, such
as steroid or peptide hormones. The type of molecule a hormone is derived from is important for how
these hormones are transported through the blood and received by effector organs. For example, the
major sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone, are derived from cholesterol, a lipid. Because of the
hydrophobic nature of these hormones, they pass through the phospholipid bilayers of a cell’s
cytoplasmic and nuclear membrane and directly affect DNA transcription. Peptide hormones, such as
insulin, cannot pass through the cytoplasmic membrane and require a receptor on the surface of the
effector cell and a second-messenger system such as a G-protein. Through hormone-receptor
interactions, it is possible for a single cell to respond to multiple hormones. And a single hormone
can have different, even opposite, effects on tissues throughout the body depending on the receptor
for that hormone.
Glands of the endocrine system are described by how they secrete the hormones they produce.
Exocrine glands secrete into ducts which carry the hormones to the epithelial surface of the gland.
These exocrine hormones typically act locally on the cells of same organ or tissue that produces the
hormone and are known as paracrine hormones. The prefix ‘para‘ means ‘beside’ or ‘next to’.
Most glands are endocrine glands. These glands are vascularized with fenestrated (leaky)
capillaries. The hormones produced by endocrine glands enter the bloodstream through these
fenestrations and travel to remote tissues and organs throughout the body. In this way, the endocrine
system can induce a widespread response throughout the body involving multiple tissues and organs.
Additionally, certain glands of the endocrine system work in close association with each other and are
connected through a closed circuit of blood vessels. The hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis) are an example of this. The hypothalamus releases several important stimulatory
and inhibitory hormones that regulate the release of hormones from the adenohypophysis. The two
glands are linked through a common circulatory circuit known as the hypophyseal portal system. This
circuit directs blood flow between the two glands and delivers hormones from the hypothalamus
directly to the andenohypophysis.
While the endocrine system and the nervous system work together to regulate physiological
processes and maintain homeostasis, they have different mechanisms and work to different end
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results. The nervous system affects specific areas and is able to react almost immediately in
response to a change in body condition, but the effects of the nervous system are often short-term
and cannot be maintained for long periods of time. The endocrine response is diffuse and is slower
because its mechanisms take longer, such as the promotion of transcription of a protein. The
endocrine response is often long-term and persists as a more permanent modification for the
maintenance of homeostasis.
Objectives:
3. Describe the function of the endocrine system
4. Define hormone, effector organ, neuroendocrine
5. Describe endocrine gland/hormone
6. Describe exocrine gland/hormone
7. Define paracrine hormone
8. Describe how hormone type and receptor affect hormone action
9. Identify the location of the major glands of the endocrine system
10. Describe the origin, target and location of select hormones
11. Observe and describe the histology of the major glands of the endocrine system
Materials:
1. Lab manual
2. Anatomical models: Torso, Brain
3. Microscope or PowerPoints
4. Histological tissue slides:
1. Hypothalamus or nervous tissue
2. Pituitary gland
a. adenohypophysis
b. neurohypophysis
3. Thymus
4. Thyroid
5. Adrenal gland
6. Pancreas
7. Ovaries
8. Testes
Part A: Gross Anatomy
After reviewing the text and notes, locate and identify each of the following glands on the anatomical
models. You are responsible for identifying the glands of the endocrine system listed for the Gross
Anatomical Practical Exam.
Part B: Histology
Observe histological slides or PowerPoint images of the following glands. You are responsible for
identifying the glands of the endocrine system listed for the Histological Practical Exam.
Part C: Hormone Study Guide
Use the space provided in the lab manual to create a study guide for the endocrine system. Indicate
the location and any notes pertaining to the histology for the identification of each of the glands.
Include the target and action of the hormones listed. We will refer to this list often during the course
of the class as we revisit each of the glands in their respective body systems.
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1.Hypothalamus
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
1. Target:
2. Action:
b.Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
1. Target:
2. Action:
c. Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
1. Target:
2. Action:
d.Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
1. Target:
2. Action:
e.Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)
1. Target:
2. Action:
f. Somatostatin
1. Target:
2. Action:
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2.Pituitary Gland
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
I. Andenohypophysis:
A.Location: anterior pituitary
B.Hormones:
a.Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
d.Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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e.Prolactin (PRL)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
f. Growth Hormone (GH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
II.Neurohypophysis
A.Location: posterior pituitary
B.Hormones:
a.Oxytocin (OT)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
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3.Thyroid
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Thyroxine (T4 )
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Triiodothyronine (T3)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Calcitonin
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
4.Parathyroid Glands
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
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5.Pineal Gland
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Melatonin
1. Target:
2. Action:
6.Thymus
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Thymopoietin, Thymosin, and Thymulin
1. Target:
2. Action:
7.Adrenal Glands
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
I. Adrenal Cortex
a.Aldosterone
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
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b.Cortisol
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Androgens
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
d.Estradiol
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
II.Adrenal Medulla
a.Epinephrine (Catecholamines)
1. Target:
2. Action:
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8.Pancreas
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Digestive enzymes, Pancreatic Polypeptide, Gastrin
1. Source: Pancreatic cells
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Insulin
1. Source: Beta cells of islets
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Glucagon
1. Source: Alpha cells of islets
2. Target:
3. Action:
d.Somatostatin
1. Source: Delta cells of islets
2. Target:
3. Action:
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9.Gonads
I. Ovaries
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Estradiol
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Progesterone
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Inhibin
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
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II.Testes
A.Location:
B.Hormones:
a.Testosterone, Androgens
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
b.Estrogen
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
c. Inhibin
1. Source:
2. Target:
3. Action:
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination
Swartz, M. H. 5th ed.
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
Endocrinology
Post Lab Questions:
1. What is a hormone?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. How does an exocrine gland differ from an endocrine gland?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is a paracrine hormone?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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4. How can a single hormone have multiple effects in the body?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. How do the regulatory mechanisms of the endocrine system differ from the those of the nervous
system. Compare the relative response time and duration of the endocrine and nervous system.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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