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PRE-MODERN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY
Of the subject areas most related to architecture, architectural history is probably the
one that the general public is most interested in or intrigued by. Vacation plans often
center around visiting historical works of architecture or newly created architectural
masterpieces. A visit to the architecture section of any large bookstore will likely reveal
that a large majority of the books, possibly close to ninety percent, are devoted to
architectural history and its famous architects: Alvar Aalto, Le Corbusier, Frank Gehry,
Walter Gropius, Philip Johnson, Louis Kahn, Andrea Palladio, I.M. Pei, Mies Van Der
Rohe, Eero Saarinen, Robert Venturi, and Frank Lloyd Wright, just to name a few. Most
of these books include numerous and lavish photographs, a luxury not included in this
article. Architectural history is also the most popular architecture course for nonarchitecture majors. This is also due to the fact that many universities restrict enrollment
in other architecture courses to architecture majors but nevertheless, it is not uncommon
to find many non-architecture majors in architectural history courses signifying their
interest in the subject area. For these reasons, no introductory series of articles on
architecture would be complete without a brief survey of architectural history. The
reader should note that this article (and the next) will focus on a “brief survey” and is
clearly not intended as a comprehensive study of architectural history. The subject area
is of such significant breath and importance, previously noted by the large number of fine
books covering the topic, that many universities have programs dedicated to
architectural history, a majority leading to the Ph.D.
The history of architecture is completely intertwined with and inseparable from the
history of civilization. It is impossible to study the development of a significant
architectural movement without understanding the societal context in which this
development occurred. For example, the construction of well-fortified churches was a
direct response to societal fears about invading barbarians. For clarity, the following
survey of the history of architecture is presented in chronological order and divided into
two articles: 1) pre-modern architectural history and 2) modern architectural history. The
Age of Enlightenment serves as the natural point defining the beginning of the modern
era. A brief synopsis of the architectural movement or style is presented followed by a
brief list of the most famous and influential architectural buildings or monuments of the
movement or style. This list is also presented in chronological order utilizing the
following format: name of the building, architect (if known), location, year built – a brief
description. Many of the dates are approximate because they are simply unknown or
subject to scholarly disagreements. Different books will list different dates depending on
a variety of factors including newfound archeological evidence. The dates listed below
are the most commonly accepted dates, although even many of these are subject to
disagreements and revision.
The author has been fortunate enough to visit many of the great works of architecture
listed in the following pages. It is highly recommended that all readers attempt to visit as
many of these works as possible. You will never regret it! A virtual tour of a majority of
these buildings can be found at Great Buildings Online, (www.greatbuildings.com).
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Pre-Modern Architectural History
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PREHISTORIC
Pinpointing the precise beginning of architecture is an impossible task, much like
defining exactly when mankind invented various objects. Scientists have concluded that
humans evolved from apelike primate ancestors in a process that began millions of
years ago. Homo sapiens, the earliest modern man, appeared between 200,000 and
100,000 B.C. in Africa during the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. During this period
humans lived a nomadic lifestyle spending a majority of their time and energy in the
search for food, without any need for a permanent residence. Around 10,000 B.C.
during the Neolithic or New Stone Age, primitive humans began to cultivate plants and
domesticate animals. These advances greatly reduced the need for food gathering
thereby encouraging the growth of permanent settlements where humans developed
communities that worked together for the betterment of their members. These early
settlements consisted of caves and huts constructed with dung, mud, stone, and local
vegetation, such as reeds and trees. Animal skins were later used in the construction of
tents and for protective clothing. This was the beginning of vernacular architecture
where methods of construction utilized locally available resources to address their local
needs. Architectural construction increased in complexity as humans developed more
tools of stone and later, bronze’ and transportation to import materials from outside their
local region.
The Neolithic Age was also the period when men created great stone structures for
religious or other unknown purposes. The most famous of these creations is probably
Stonehenge, located on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. Constructed c. 29501500 B.C. Stonehenge was likely connected with a sun cult or used for astronomical
observations or calendar, although its exact use is still unknown. Respect for the
deceased was also apparent in many of the early settlements. In fact, permanent
dwellings were probably constructed for the deceased in the form of burial tombs prior to
the construction of the same for the living. Little is known about the development of
architecture between the Neolithic Age and the rise of the Egyptian and Middle Eastern
cultures.
EGYPTIAN
Ancient Egypt consisted primarily of agricultural villages located on the banks of the Nile,
which later formed into provincial villages or “nomes”. By 3300 B.C. approximately forty
nomes were formed in Egypt’s two distinct regions – Upper Egypt in the harder
geography of the southern valley and Lower Egypt in the more moderate northern delta.
The Nile was the most important factor in the formation of Egyptian society. Running
through the middle of a desert, the annual flooding of this river created the fertile valley
required to grow the necessary crops plus it also provided a transportation corridor
between villages in the empire. This corridor permitted close contact between the
Pharaoh and his people and between each village. Naturally the Egyptians founded
their cities on the banks of the Nile, the east bank (rising sun) designated for the living
and their temples, the west bank (setting sun) designated for the afterlife (or dead) and
their royal tombs. The cliffs overlooking the Nile provided much of the stone that
became the primary building material for Egyptian monuments. This stone was either
quarried and transported to other locations or temples were carved directly into the
stone. The Nile also provided the mud that became the primary building material for the
Egyptian homes and other utilitarian structures, none of which have survived to today. A
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majority of the wood that grew along the Nile was primarily used for boats and mummy
sarcophagi.
Around 3100 B.C. the Pharaoh Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt and set up the
bureaucratic system required to rule the entire Egyptian Kingdom. Over the next four
centuries this system evolved in complexity and metaphysical importance such that the
Pharaohs felt it necessary to construct monumental structures and temple complexes for
their god-like existence and afterlives. The bureaucracy was also required to organize
the labor force required to construct the monumental structures Egypt is famous for,
many of which are nearly impossible to construct under modern labor conditions.
Scholars generally agree that the Egyptian’s labor force for these monumental structures
consisted primarily of regular citizens during the inundation season, when the Nile was
flooding so they couldn’t farm their crops during that time. The citizens saw these efforts
as a way to do well by the “Akh”, their effective spirit that survived death and allowed
them to mingle with the gods, which would bestow favors upon these people in their
current life. Pharaohs were initially viewed as representatives of the gods, but this led to
the natural evolution of the Pharaoh as a living god. Ancient Egyptian history is divided
into the following three major kingdoms: 1) the Old Kingdom, c. 2700-2200 B.C. with
Memphis (Cairo) as its capital, 2) the Middle Kingdom, c. 2052-1786 B.C. with Thebes
(Luxor) as its most important city, and 3) the New Kingdom or Empire, c. 1575-1087 B.C.
which extended the Egyptian influence into Nubia (the Sudan) and Mesopotamia. Each
kingdom ended with a breakdown of the power administration until a new strong central
structure was restored thereby forming the next kingdom. By 1000 B.C. the empire had
ended and Egypt began a slow decline in power and was finally invaded by the Persians
in 525 B.C., the Greek Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., and later annexed by the
Romans in 30 B.C.
A powerful influence on Egyptian architecture was the concept of “Ma’at” – truth, justice,
and the rightness of things at the beginning of time. Adherence to Ma’at made it so that
to change anything from the way it was before was to violate Ma’at. Hence, the
architecture, along with everything else, stays consistent over time. Death was possibly
seen as a violation of Ma’at in that it is a change from the way things were before! So
the next life was seen as in some ways more important because it would be eternal and
Ma’at would not need to be violated. Tombs were designed to preserve all that existed
in life – the body or soul and important worldly possessions. Consequently these tombs
were designed to include impregnable chambers filled with mummified bodies, worldly
possessions the deceased might need in the afterlife, and paintings for the decease to
remember their earthly life. Egyptian architecture also reflected their strong societal
order through the symbolic use of strong geometric forms and mathematical accuracy,
many of which were derived from the movement of the sun. Egyptian monuments were
the result of a highly sophisticated civilization and are still considered some of the most
impressive structures ever constructed. No one can view the world famous great
pyramids of Giza and not only be in awe of their existence and longevity, but also
amazed at how they were ever constructed. Even modern architectural historians
debate about the construction techniques.
The most famous and influential architectural monuments of Egypt include the following:

Pyramid of King Zoser, Saqqara (Egypt), c. 2750 B.C. – a series of stepped
stone tombs constructed so that it became the first pyramid-shaped tomb. Built
by Imhotep, who is considered to be the first architect in history.
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
Great Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu (also Pyramids of Chephren and Mycerinus),
Giza (Egypt), c. 2800-2200 B.C. – royal tombs built on the Giza plain during the
Old Kingdom. The great pyramid of Cheops (482 feet high) was the largest mass
of stone ever erected. The only surviving “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World”.

Sphinx, Giza (Egypt), date unknown usually estimated c. 2500 B.C. – a large
stone sculpture with a body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh. Built in front of
the great pyramids on the Giza plain.

Great Temple of Amon, Karnak (Egypt), began in c. 2000 B.C. – later added to
by many pharaohs during the Middle Kingdom until it appeared as two major
groups of temples.

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari (Egypt) c. 1500 B.C. –
built for a New Kingdom Queen, three terraced courts cut into rocks cliffs
overlooking the Nile.

Great Temple of Ramesses II, Abu-Simbel (Egypt), c. 1250 B.C. – cut into rocks
cliffs overlooking the Nile. Features large statutes of its founder.

Funeral Temple of Ramesses II, Medinet Habu (Egypt), c. 1175 B.C. – may be
connected with the royal palace.

Great Temple of Horus, Edfu (Egypt), 237-57 B.C. – constructed during the
Greek period yet it adhered rigidly to the much-earlier classic Egyptian style.
MIDDLE EASTERN
Mesopotamia refers to the fertile valley between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers in
present-day Iraq. This area was originally settled by the Sumerians c. 4000 B.C. who
constructed large cities organized around priestly bureaucracies and temples, with
surrounding plains watered by vast irrigation projects. Later rulers included the
Akkadians beginning with Sargon I c. 2350 B.C., the Amorites with the codified laws of
Hammurabi c. 1792-1750 B.C., the Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Persians.
Unlike the Egyptians who were naturally protected from their enemies by a vast barren
desert, inhabitants of Mesopotamia settled in fertile plains and spent much of their time
defending their interests or being invaded by numerous other empires. Little was known
about the Middle Eastern empires of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and other lesserknown empires except for their vague and contradictory mention in religious texts, such
as the Bible and Koran. This changed when archeologists began their excavations in
present day Iran and Iraq during the middle of the nineteenth century. Archeologists
discovered that the ancient inhabitants were the first to live in cities, invent a practical
system of writing, codify a legal code, and utilize wheeled vehicles – all of which
warrants Mesopotamia the title of the “Cradle of Civilization”.
The inhabitants of the Middle Eastern empires built their cities with the readily available
local material, mud brick, as no stone and few trees were available. Facing materials of
fired brick or limestone slabs carved with reliefs were used as decoration and protection
against the elements. Towns were constructed on elevated platforms formed with soil
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and finished with brick to provide protection against flooding and invaders. Due to the
erosion effects of rains, shifting sands, and winds, many of the Middle Eastern structures
today appear as shapeless mounds. When visiting ancient ruins an imaginative mind is
required to visualize their former grandeur. The Persians settled on higher and drier
land where timber was available and consequently, the Persians employed its use in the
construction of their roofs. Generally the inhabitants of Mesopotamia believed in
polytheism (many gods) and the afterlife, but did not posses the cult-like approach to the
afterlife as did the Egyptians, so they did not construct monumental tombs. Temples
were built for worshipping the gods and not the rulers.
The most famous and influential architectural monuments of the Middle East include the
following:

Ziggurat, numerous locations and times – a seven-layer stepped-tower whose
height was designed to reach to the heavens while also conveying the town’s
importance to outsiders.

The White Temple, Uruk (Iraq), c. 3500-3100 B.C. – temple built atop a ziggurat
mound.

Ziggurat of the Moon God Nannar, Ur (Iraq), c. 2113-2006 B.C. – famous
Sumerian ziggurat.

Palace of Sargon II, Khorsabad (Iraq), 721 B.C. – huge Neo-Assyrian palace
complex constructed on an elevated platform with stairs and ramps to the
ground.

Achaemenid Royal Palace, Persepolis (Iran), 518-460 B.C. – Persian palace
constructed with ancient Middle Eastern and Egyptian influences.
GREEK
The geography of Greece consists of a rocky peninsula where jagged bays and inlets
extend far inland, separated by mountain ranges. This geography led to the
development of isolated villages or states that all shared a strong common cultural
heritage. In the event of an outside threat, such as the invading Persian, the states
banded together to ward off their common enemy. The isolated states may have valued
their independence but they also felt a strong sense of cultural superiority, i.e. other
nationalities were inferior to the Greeks. This belief was based primarily in the truth, as
many of the other cultures of the time were considered barbaric. Greek culture
developed out of the need to understand and explain the physical and psychological
world in which the Greeks lived, combined with the belief in the worth of the individual.
By inquiring about the nature of the world and applying a logical order to its explanation
and man’s role in this order, the ancient Greeks developed the thought process utilized
by the Western world until the present. Greece became the intellectual center of the
world. A majority of readers are probably familiar with the Greek fableist Aesop,
mathematicians Euclid and Pythagoras, philosophers Aristotle, Plato and Socrates,
physician Hippocrates, and the poet Homer. Greece is also credited with the first
application of democratic principles and the first Olympic games.
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The Greeks applied this same order in the development of their architecture. Structures
were designed with mathematical certainty including proper proportions and visible
structural integrity, with an emphasis on logical design applications and the creation of a
design in harmony with man. Design rules were formally developed and documented to
be carefully followed by successful architects. These rules were carefully detailed in the
Greek orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Determining which order the Greek
architect utilized can be determined by viewing the capital or head of the building’s
columns. Doric was the earliest of the Greek orders with plain capitals, Ionic was the
next evolution of Greek order with scroll-like capitals, and Corinthian was the last of the
Greek orders with highly decorative leaf-like capitals. The Romans later adopted these
orders but were influenced the most by the Corinthian order. Temples were designed to
house sculptures of their gods and goddesses but the main social gathering place was
outside of the temple. Consequently, the Greek architects designed the temple’s interior
based on the logic of the structure to protect the sculptures but concentrated much of
their artistic expression on the harmonious exterior, which was integrated with the
internal structure. Greek architects were concerned with optical irregularities viewers
may have of their structures. In response, columns were regularly tapered and/or
inclined inward to visually correct for optical illusions for those viewing the exterior of the
building.
Ancient Greek history may be divided into four major periods: 1) the Aegean period, pre700 B.C., 2) the Archaic period, 700-480 B.C., 3) the Classical period, 480-336 B.C., and
4) the Hellenistic period, 336-30 B.C. As with the Egyptians, Ancient Greek history
essentially ended with the annexation by the Romans in 30 B.C. During the Classical
period the Greek city-states united under the leadership of Athens to fight against the
Persians. This temporary consolidation of power created the impetuous for the
construction of some of the most famous Greek architecture. This was the time of the
construction of the famous citadel in Athens, the Acropolis. The Greek mountains were
the source of much mineral wealth including the marble that was used to construct many
public buildings.
The most famous and influential examples of Greek architecture include the following:

Palace of King Minos, Knossos (Crete), c. 1600 B.C. – large royal palace
complex employing corrected columns and the first known stairs designed with
standardized steps and landings.

The Citadel, Mycenae (Greece), c. 1400 B.C. – walled city with the famous entry
Lion Gate, a sculpture of two lions, carved in relief.

Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae (Greece), c. 1350 B.C. – a long covered passage
leading to a domed chamber constructed prior to the discovery of the arch.

Parthenon, Iktinos and Kallikrates, Athens (Greece), 447-438 B.C. – temple built
on the Acropolis to house the statue of Athena Parthenos. Viewed as one of the
most complete and perfect forms ever constructed.

Temple of Athena Nike, Kallikrates, Athens (Greece), 435-420 B.C. – small Ionic
temple built at the base of the Acropolis. Known for its delicate design and
exquisite details. Commemorates the Greek victory over the Persians.
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
Temple of Apollo, Paionios of Ephesos and Daphnis of Miletos, Didyma (Turkey),
c. 330 B.C. – one of the largest Greek temples ever built, open to the sky.

Theatre, Polykleitos the Younger, Epidaurus (Greece), c. 350 B.C. – a 14,000seat theatre hollowed out of natural hills in the shape of a semicircle.
ROMAN
At its height of power the Roman Empire stretched from England to the Arabian Desert
and from Germany to the Sahara Desert including the former Egyptian, Greek, and
Persian Empires – an area which constituted all of the known western world at the time.
Originally a group of Latin villages located on the Tiber River in modern day Rome, how
was it possible for this group to literally rule the world? The Romans built their empire
through conquest and diplomacy, but their true achievement was the ability to maintain
their empire through “intelligent rule”. Conquered people were absorbed into the empire
but permitted to maintain much of their original culture. In return, the Romans provided
protection from barbarian tribes, commerce with the remainder of the empire, and
individual protection through the rule of law. It is not surprising that few conquered
people revolted against Roman rule as many Roman citizens were satisfied with their
rulers and felt tremendous pride in their glorious empire. This method of rule had a
significant impact on the development of the western world as many of our educational
and governmental policies had their origins with the Romans although they seemingly
borrowed many of their ideas from the Greeks, i.e. Democracy, the Polis, and took it to a
whole other level of scale. The Roman Empire consisted of the Republican period, 50927 B.C. and the Imperial period, 27 B.C.-395 A.D.
The Romans embraced the Greek artistic, cultural, and intellectual achievements and
spread their influence throughout Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. Vast
numbers of Roman ruins are found in this region reminding the world of the Romans
influence. The Romans included many Greek artistic artifacts in their empire but added
a different emphasis. Where Greeks believe art was an expression of perfection
representing the ideal form of beauty and power (and the gods), Roman Art was geared
towards the more practical ornamentation. The Romans adopted the classical Greek
orders (the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) as their own while also adding the Tuscan and
Composite orders. These new orders were adaptations of the Doric and Corinthian
orders, respectively. Italy has significant mineral wealth and combined with the wealth of
their conquered lands, the Romans possessed all the materials required to build their
grand empire. The Romans produced the first concrete which they were able to use
throughout their empire without being restricted by the use of local materials. They also
became proficient in the construction of arches, domes, and vaults. These factors
permitted the Romans to construct all types of buildings with a consistency throughout
their empire. For example, Roman aqueducts and temples in France were similar to
those in Rome and Turkey, even though these areas were far apart. Essentially the
Roman architecture reflected their rule.
In comparison to the artistic and intellectual Greeks who were concerned with individual
man, the Romans tended to be politicians and warriors concerned with the practical rule
and expansion of their empire. They preferred to glorify their empire rather than any
religious philosophy as long as it did not threaten the ruling structure, a practice that
eventually fostered the growth of Christianity, although Emperor Nero almost eliminated
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the religion. Respect for authority was a dominant theme in Roman architecture,
although the Romans were also known for their barbaric entertainment. Roman
architects employed unrivaled engineering techniques to create impressive, powerful,
and well-planned buildings and cities. Roman architecture is characterized by the
creation of buildings through the shaping of internal spaces along strict axial
organization, typically with crossed axes defining the center of the building. In contrast
to the Greeks who concentrated their architecture on temples, the Romans were
required to build many types of private and public structures, many of which were
previously unknown, such as the bath house. Their structures had to provide shelter for
huge crowds so relying on the Greek post (column) and beam (horizontal support)
structural system was not practical. By utilizing vaulting systems the Romans created
wide-open spaces that were covered. As they perfected their vaulting systems, the
exterior walls supported less and less of the roof weight. This permitted the Roman
architects to place openings and windows in the wall, thereby providing natural light on
the interior of their buildings, a technique later refined with steel and glass construction
2,000 years later! The Romans were the first civilization to conduct most of their daily
life activities indoors and consequently devoted substantial architectural practice to the
shaping of interior spaces. Roman architecture was also constructed in more urban
environments with densely populated constructions. Consequently their structures were
often just another building on the street and not built completely isolated from other
structures.
The most famous and influential examples of Roman architecture include the following:

The Roman and Imperial Forums, Rome (Italy), c. 54 B.C.-117 A.D – group of
public meeting places where the law courts and other public buildings were
concentrated.

Maison Carrée, Agrippa, Nîmes (France), 19 B.C. – one of the best-preserved
early Roman temples in existence. Beginning of the lavish Roman architectural
style including the Greek Corinthian order.

Port du Gard, Nîmes (France), c. 15 B.C. – large three-level aqueduct designed
to carry water and a roadway over the river Gard.

Colosseum, Vespasian, Rome (Italy), 70-82 A.D. – originally known as the
Flavian Amphitheatre, huge ramped amphitheater designed to seat 55,000
spectators. The prototype for modern sports arenas that did not rely on natural
hills for construction.

Pantheon, rebuilt by Hadrian, Rome (Italy), c. 118-128 A.D. – a huge dome with
a 30 foot diameter opening in its center for natural light and a waffle-like interior
supported by a circular masonry wall. A design of geometric perfection exploiting
concrete to its fullest.

Thermae of Caracalla, Rome (Italy), 211-217 A.D. – imperial bathing facilities
with a strong axial plan that directed the user to the proper area. Featured richly
ornated interiors.
Pre-Modern Architectural History

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Porta Nigra, Trier (Germany), c. 300 A.D. – monumental gateway designed to
reinforce the town’s defense and to architecturally delineate the entrance to the
town.
EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE
Many think of the “fall of the Roman Empire” as a specific historical occurrence (even
given an exact date of 476 A.D.) when in fact the empire gradually transformed itself
from a pagan empire into a Christian empire and eventually split into two distinctive
parts, events lasting for over a century. The Roman Empire slowly began to disintegrate
politically which led to high unemployment, discontent among Roman citizens, civil wars,
and eventually bankruptcy. The empire became too big and complex for one person to
rule so in 284 A.D. the emperor Diocletianus divided the Roman Empire into two halves,
the western and eastern, each with their own emperor. These halves were temporarily
united under the Roman emperor Constantine I (the Great), who’s 313 A.D. Edict of
Milan, permitted religions in the empire. He eventually accepted Christianity as his
personal religion. Realizing the seriousness of the empire’s decay, in 330 A.D.
Constantine I decided to move its capital to a “New Rome” or Byzantium in Asia Minor
(present day Turkey). This city was later renamed Constantinople for “Constantine’s
City” and later to Istanbul by the Muslims. This move increased the speed of
deterioration for the western half of the empire and eventually led to its invasion from the
northern Germanic tribes and final collapse in 476 A.D. when the last Western Roman
Emperor Odovacar was disposed. These new rulers of the western empire accepted
Roman culture and incorporated it into their rule. The eastern empire continued to
prosper which eventually led to the split of the Christian church into two corresponding
halves, Eastern Orthodox in the east and Roman Catholic in the west. Justinian became
the most well known ruler of the eastern empire and is responsible for the codification of
Roman law (Codex Justinianus) and church building.
During the next five centuries the great Roman architecture and transportation systems
fell into ruin as citizens were now more concerned with disease and hunger instead of
the greatness of the empire. Roman life which had once concentrated on comforts and
pleasure in the here and now, gradually was more concerned with the hereafter and
leading a moral life. Christianity gain acceptance within the empire and was made the
official state religion by the 380 A.D. Edict of Thessalonica. Eventually the Christian
church soon replaced the Roman government as the source of authority and
organization. The church became so pervasive in the individual’s life that if one became
separate from the church, they were essentially isolated from society. As the rule of the
emperor vanished, a feudal system of rule developed in towns and villages. Under this
system the feudal landowners protected their workers in exchange for their labor. The
natural result of this system was the independent development of villages designed
primarily for the protection of its citizens, often through the use of massive stone walls
and moats surrounding the town, although epidemic diseases were the most prevalent
cause of death.
Architects were still designing private and public buildings, albeit not with such grandeur
as before, but concentrated their efforts on churches designed to efficiently house and
protect worshipers. The primary purpose of the early Christian churches was for the
gathering of worshippers or congregation under the direction of a religious leader who
preached to them. The early churches were often converted private homes. Churches
were designed with two major components, the nave a large central section used for the
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gathering of the congregation (usually with two side aisles) and the apse a semi-circular
area at the east end of the church containing the altar. Church plans were often shaped
like a “T” to resemble the cross of Jesus. Byzantine plans were also based on the Greek
Cross, an “X” shaped plan with five domes – a large dome in the center and four smaller
domes representing each compass direction radiating from the center. These new
buildings were designed to direct the mind of its users to the heavens, so any
ornamentation was included solely for this purpose. The exteriors of these churches
were rather mundane because the ornamentation was inside the church where the
worshipping occurred. Christian churches were called basilicas or cathedrals when a
bishop was the overseer.
The most famous and influential examples of early Christian and Byzantine architecture
(all future dates given are A.D. unless noted) include the following:

Basilica of Saint Peter, Rome (Italy), 319-329 – built by Constantine over the
believed burial spot of Saint Peter. Later destroyed for new church of the same
name.

San Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna (Italy), 532-549 – small Christian church
constructed with three aisles and apse. Richly decorated interior. Became the
standard of early Christian church design.

Hagia Sophia, Isodorus of Miletus and Anthemuis of Tralles, Istanbul (Turkey),
532-537 – built during Justinian’s reign considered the greatest masterpiece of
Byzantine architecture. Massive construction with a high central dome.

San Vitale, Ravenna (Italy), 532-548 –an octagon shaped church with a single
dome built by Justinian. Delicate interior with fine mosaics.

Church of San Marco, Venice (Italy), 1063-1095 – based on the five domes later
embellished by Gothic architects.

Church of the Holy Apostles, Salonika (Greece), 1312-1315 – floor plan is a
Greek cross with a high dome over the center.

Saint Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow (Russia), 1550-1560 – later extension of the five
dome design demonstrating widespread influence of Byzantine architecture.
ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC
Renaissance scholars named the time period between the enlightened ancient Roman
civilization and their own enlightened period the Middles Ages (Medieval). This period is
now generally divided into three periods: 1) the Early Middle Ages 476 to 900, 2) the
High Middles Ages 900 to 1200, and 3) the Late Middles Ages 1200-1450. The first
period were the true “Dark Ages” which ended with the rise of Charlemagne and the
Frankish Empire (present-day France and Germany). The next period was
characterized by the development of the feudal system, resumption of trade and travel
across Europe, the first crusades against the Muslims, and the revival of large buildings,
especially churches. The Late Middle Ages was characterized by the rise of the cities,
the development of more graceful large churches, and the Black Death (bubonic
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plague). Charlemagne started a building campaign called the Carolingian Renaissance
(sometimes referred to as German Romanesque), which attempted to recreate the
ancient Roman grand style, but most of the buildings developed during this time were
forts and monasteries, most of which were crude in comparison to Roman architecture.
The church also consolidated their power ironically relying on the hierarchical structure
employed by their former rulers, the Romans. The two major styles of Western Medieval
architecture were Romanesque (approximately High Middle Ages) and Gothic
(approximately Late Middle Ages).
Romanesque architecture was characterized by heavy masonry construction with narrow
window openings. This type of construction provided its occupants with a large
congregation area that was well protected, much like that provided by fortresses, giving
their inhabitants a psychological feeling of safety – protected by their God in difficult
times. This was not an unusual design ideal as the region’s safety was still an issue and
there were numerous Roman ruins that reminded the population of their vulnerabilities.
These ruins did provide the inspiration for the architects who aspired for the greatest of
the Romans, hence the name “Roman”-esque. Unfortunately this created dark and
unfriendly building interiors. Romanesque architects began working on alternate
structural features to relieve the building’s heavy feeling and reliance on the walls for the
roof support. These included the flying buttress, pointed arch, and ribbed vault, all of
which aided in the support of the roof thereby reducing the required structural strength of
the wall. Monasteries were created that protected much of the classical ideas and
thoughts that were the foundation of western civilization. They also provided sanctuary
for those who wanted to escape the chaos and suffering of this era.
Gothic architecture, named after the barbarian group of Goths, began with the large
Romanesque structure and further opened up the interior spaces. This was
accomplished by utilizing smaller more delicate structural features and by providing
lighting with an increased use of glass, including stained glass windows. The usage of
glass was possible because columns in lieu of walls were now used to support the
massive roof loads. This was also appropriate given the increased level of safety of the
Late Middle Ages. Because of their vast size, several generations and most of the
town’s resources were devoted to the construction of the great cathedrals.
Consequently, the cathedral became a huge source of civil pride for the community and
led to competition between towns to determine which could build the largest, tallest, and
most ornate cathedral. Often a cathedral was under construction when the local
authorities would change the design because they had seen an even grander cathedral
in another town. The cathedral identified the town and became what must have seemed
like a never-ending construction project. Gothic architecture primary started in France
and then later expanded to other European countries. Many Gothic cathedrals were
dedicated to the Virgin Mother, to Our Lady Notre Dame and not to local saints.
The most famous and influential examples of Romanesque architecture include the
following:

Monastery Church of Saint Michael, Hildesheim (Germany), 993-1022 – first
major Carolingian church built with massive stone walls for protection and towers
that pointed to heaven for spirituality.

San Miniato al Monte, Florence (Italy), 1062-c. 1200 – small Benedictine abbey
church with a marble exterior veneer designed per strong Roman influences.
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
Durham Cathedral, Durham (England), 1093-1133 – built with massive walls but
included the use of diagonal ribs for support and decoration.

Cathedral Group, Pisa (Italy), 1063-1272 – included an example of a refined
Italian cathedral, baptistery, campanile (famous leaning bell tower), and campo
santo (cemetery).
The most famous and influential examples of Gothic architecture include the following:

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris (France), 1163-1250 – located on an island in
the Seine River featuring flying buttresses, round stain glass windows in the front
elevation, and upper clerestory windows for lighting. Unfortunately the interior of
the cathedral is still relatively dark.

Cathedral of Notre Dame, Chartres (France), 1194-1240 – furthered the design
principles of the Paris and other Gothic cathedrals combined with simplicity.

Cathedral of Saint Mary, Salisbury (England), 1220-1266 – influenced by the
French designs except with a completely rectangular design. Built on new
grounds where more open space is located compared to other urban cathedrals.

Cathedral, Cologne (Germany), begun in 1247 – the largest Gothic church in
northern Europe. Impressive size but lacking the French delicate design
touches.

Cathedral Group, Florence (Italy), 1300-1462 – consisted of a Duomo
(cathedral), baptistery, and campanile. Brunelleschi added the dome to the
Duomo 1418-1436, beginning the Italian Renaissance.
RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE
Beginning in the fourteenth century and extending into the seventeenth century, the
Renaissance was a period of great revival in the arts, literature, and learning in Europe.
With a newfound confidence in their own intellect, individuals took place at center stage
of society (and the universe) during this “rebirth” period. Many architects made the
pilgrimage to Rome to study ancient Roman ruins. They wanted to equal or surpass the
artistic achievement they studied, not to recreate or repair it; the so-called rebirth was
actually closer to a Roman Revival in practice. The church had almost exclusive control
of the dissemination of knowledge but the invention of the printing press in 1440 by
Johann Gutenberg significantly changed that. The printing press permitted the rapid
spread of Renaissance ideas resulting in free thinking, challenges to traditional ideas,
and a great period of discovery. This led to many inventions and influential treatises that
revolutionized man’s view of the world, including one by Copernicus on the nature of the
solar system and by Vesalius on human anatomy. Thought was no longer solely based
on church traditions but derived from inquiry and rational analysis. The Romanesque
and Gothic periods were primarily concerned with religious influences; the Renaissance
period switched this influence to a more secular expression of mercantilism and politics.
Many of the clients for large public buildings were now individual bankers, merchants,
politicians, and individual popes instead of the church hierarchy. The Renaissance
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movement lasted for four hundred years encompassing a variety of architectural styles
including Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo.
Renaissance architecture began in Italy as adaptations of ancient Roman architectural
details or compositional forms in the design of contemporary buildings. Characterized at
first by the inventive use of isolated Roman details, later by the more imitative use of the
Roman orders (Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite), with great attention to
the precepts of Vitruvius (the author of The Ten Books on Architecture, c. 25 B.C.) and
the precedents of ancient ruins. The emphasis was on symmetry and the exact
mathematical relationships between the architectural parts. Renaissance architecture is
characterized by an orderly and controlled environment center around the individual.
The use of pure forms such as the circle and square and proper proportioning was
emphasized. New architecture no longer was required to reach to the heavens but
rather stress the earth-bound horizontal plane, like the Romans had previously
accomplished. Consequently, buildings were more horizontal in comparison to aspiring
heights of the great Gothic cathedrals. When the movement reached its zenith in Italy
around 1500, the rest of Europe was still dominated by the Gothic style. As Italy moved
into the Baroque style the Renaissance movement began spreading thru the rest of
Europe, implemented differently in each country depending on local influences, the
distance from Italy, and availability of Italian craftsmen. Why did the Renaissance
movement begin in Italy? Primarily because the Gothic style of architecture never
became that popular in Italy and the Italians had a natural connection to the grandeurs of
the Roman Empire and desired a rebirth of their glorious history. Mannerism revolted
against certain aspects of Renaissance architecture, most notably its structural logic,
through the elongation of forms, the use of grotesque human figures, and strident colors.
Baroque architecture began in Italy in the early seventeenth century out of the search for
something new and not entirely restricted to the classical orders. Derived from the
French word for “misshapen pear”, Barroco, which appears to be a reference to the
unusual, oval-based floorplans of some baroque churches. Baroque architecture is
characterized by the free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornamentation,
by elevations and plans that suggested movement, and by the combination of the arts
for dramatic effect. The architecture became so integrated with the landscape, painting,
and sculpture that it was often difficult to determine where one ended and the other
began. Plans were curvilinear instead of the traditional linear, architectural elements
were often distorted, contrast was emphasized over clarity, and spaces were more fluid
or plastic in their design. Baroque designs expressed originality but often this led to
some truly awful designs. Originating in France and evolved from the Baroque style,
Rococo was a more elegant application of lavish materials and ornamentation.
The most famous and influential examples of Renaissance architecture include the
following:

Fondling Hospital, Brunelleschi, Florence (Italy), 1419-1424 – first building
designed with the pure forms and proper proportions of the Renaissance.

Palazzo Medici, Michelozzo, Florence (Italy), 1446-1459 – built for the wealthy
Medici family, became the prototype of the Renaissance palazzos.

Facade of Santa Maria Novella, Albert, Florence (Italy), 1458-1471 – a facade of
an existing medieval church designed based on a proportional system.
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
Saint Peter’s, Bramante, Michelangelo and Bernini, Rome (Italy), 1506-1626 –
the mother church of the western world constructed of immense size and
imposing character delineating by the powerful church.

Chateau, Nepveu, Chambord (France), started in 1519 – combination medieval
castle and Italian palace built with French influences. Visually stunning exterior.

Villa Rotonda, Palladio, Vicenza, 1567-1569 – famed architectural author design
that featured a square plan with identical column porticoes on each side. A
dome covered the central area.

Church of the Gesù, Vignola, Rome (Italy), 1568-1577 – late Renaissance church
that had a significant impact on future Baroque churches.

Monticello, Jefferson, Charlottesville (Virginia), 1770-1775 – although technically
not of the Renaissance era, the future president and famous architect brought
the Palladian tradition to the United States.
The most famous and influential examples of Baroque architecture include the following:

Santa Maria della Salute, Longhena, Venice (Italy), 1631 – built on the Grand
Canal, one of the most famous Baroque churches in Italy.

Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Borromini, 1634-1667 – small church
with heavily sculptured interior based on geometric proportions.

Palace, Versailles (France), 1661-1710 – hunting lodge transformed into a royal
palace for Louis XIV. Includes ornate interiors and vast lushly landscaped
grounds.

Saint Paul’s Cathedral, Wren, London (England), 1675-1710 – Medieval Latin
cross design dominated by a high Baroque dome.

Church of Les Invalides, Mansart, Paris (France), 1679-1691 – completed near
the end of the Baroque period, beginning to show signs of the later Neo-Classic
style.

Vierzehnheiligen or Pilgrimage Church of the Fourteen Saints, Neumann,
Franconia (Germany), 1742-1772 – carried the Baroque style to the extreme.
Dazzling interior due to the work of carvers, painters, and sculptors.
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
The Islamic faith began in 610 in the Arabian town of Mecca when the prophet
Mohammed (Mahomet) received a revelation from god requiring the absolute
submission to a unique and personal god, Allah. These revelations were recorded in the
Koran (Qú râń), the holy book of the Islamic followers or Muslims. One of the tenants of
this new faith was the insistence on justice in society, which caused much discomfort to
the ruling aristocrats in Mecca. Consequently, Mohammed and his followers were
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forced to leave Mecca in 622 and journey 200 miles north to the Arabian town of Medina.
This date marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Seven years later Mohammed
conquered Mecca which started an extraordinary growth in the Islamic Empire. By 732
this empire included Central Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, Spain and southern
France, and a majority of the Byzantine Empire. The empire later expanded to India,
Malaysia, and Indonesia. Because of this growth the character of the first Islamic cities
was basically an adaptation of pre-Islamic construction with Islamic principles. Many
Byzantine cathedrals were easily converted to Islamic mosques. When the buildings
were of new construction they naturally conformed to the Islamic tradition. During the
next ten centuries the Islamic Empire fragmented into many different regions until the
Europeans and Ottomans re-conquered many areas. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a
crusade to restore Asia Minor (Turkey) and the holy land of Palestine to the Byzantine
Empire. Ten crusades followed until 1291 with little success. Ironically during these
crusades architecture values was exchanged between each side, which influenced the
development of European and Islamic architecture.
The three primary Islamic buildings were the mosque, palace-city, and the tomb. The
mosque was the central place of prayer, similar in function to the Christian church. The
followers were organized in parallel rows to pray on their knees facing toward the holy
city of Mecca. The early mosques were primarily open courtyards surrounding by
administrative offices. Only the faithful were provided with any protection against the
sun. Mosques designs soon incorporated covered naves and huge domes based on
influences from outside civilizations. The palace-cities were developed by local rulers to
impress others with their increased power and wealth. Typical design features included
solid walls for protection, monumental gateways, the central mosque with a large highly
decorative dome, and a central courtyard surrounded by administrative structures. Many
also included four minarets representing the four compass directions. Unfortunately
these palaces were frequently deserted and permitted to decay. Decorative yet
protective walls also surrounded entire cities. Islamic tombs became places of
pilgrimage, much like the Christian tombs. These were generally built over sites where a
great religious event occurred or were built around religious relics such as part of the
body of the prophet Mohammed. Many great Islamic buildings had later additions and
renovations that increased their original splendor and ornamentation.
The most famous and influential examples of Islamic architecture include the following:

The Dome of the Rock or Qubbat-as-Sakhrah, Jerusalem (Israel), 691 – the third
holiest site in Islam (after Mecca and Medina) built over the believed site of
Mohammed’s ascent to heaven. Plan was derived from the Byzantine Church
San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Mosaics later added to exterior.

Great Mosque, Damascus (Syria), 706 – covered prayer arcade with high
ceilings and excellent lighting, demonstrating that Islamic architecture could
match the achievements of Byzantines.

Great Mosque, Cordoba (Spain), 784-786 – combination of Islamic architecture
with Roman influenced Spanish architecture. Added to by numerous builders.

Azhar Mosque, Cairo (Egypt), 969-973 – large congregational mosque in the
center of the city.
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
Minaret of the Kalayan Mosque or Tower of Death, Bukhara (Uzbekistan), 1127 –
constructed of sun-dried brick. The entire town of Bukhara has been a restored,
now considered an open-air living museum.

Palace of Alhambra, Granada (Spain), fourteenth century – palace complex with
stunning interiors, especially the Court of Lions. Islamic architecture at its artistic
finest. It’s beauty inspired the conquering Christians.

The Royal Mosque, Isfahan (Iran), 1611-1638 – city complex with an elegant
courtyard and the Safavid mosque on the east side.

Mosque of Süyleman II or Blue Mosque, Sinan, Istanbul (Turkey), 1550-1557 –
completely new Islamic mosque inspired by Hagia Sophia. Huge central prayer
area with high dome and entry courtyard with four minarets. One of the most
beautiful buildings in the world.

Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan, Agra (India), 1630-1653 – marble mausoleum built out of
the love of the ruler for his queen. Probably one of the most famous buildings in
the world.
ASIA AND ANCIENT AMERICA
Asia has a rich and varied history that certainly equals and might surpass that of
Western Civilization. Unfortunately even a brief survey of this history is beyond the
scope of this article. Interested individuals (and even the un-interested) should definitely
read one of the many fine books detailing the history of the great Asian societies of
China, India, Japan, Korea, and South-East Asia. Presented below is merely an
extremely brief list of the most significant architectural structures in Asia, which certainly
does not begin to do justice to the area. This list is presented as a reminder to the
reader that there exist many great architectural buildings outside of Western Civilization,
many of which are truly awe inspiring! Asian architecture is far more tied to a cosmic
world than in western architecture. The role of religion is also on this plain as the
personal god associated with western societies is not part of many Asian cultures. This
requires that all buildings, regardless of importance, have the proper orientation and
adhere to strict axial rules. The orderly arrangement of spaces is more important than
artistic creativity. Feng shui is one incarnation of this order that has recently developed
a following in the United States. Two important religious buildings are the pagoda and
stupa. A pagoda is a temple or sacred building, often of great size, usually a pyramid
like or polygonal shaped tower having upward-curving roofs over the individual stories.
A stupa is a monumental towerlike pile of earth or other material in memory of Buddha, a
Buddhist saint, or other historical event. Asians were adept at using local building
materials in an efficient and manner, thereby illustrating their deep respect for nature.
Ancient America refers to North and South America (including the islands of the Pacific
Ocean) prior to the arrival of the European explorers, often called the pre-Columbian
era. Many of these societies were highly developed with cities whose size rivaled or
surpassed those of Europe. A remarkable achievement given the fact that these
civilizations did not posses the advanced building tools of the Europeans. Most have
disappeared because of European conquest, disease, or for other unknown reasons.
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These civilizations include the Olmecs, Mayans, Toltecs, Incas, and Aztecs. Pyramids,
advanced irrigation systems, markets, special courts for playing ball games, the use of
stucco, a religion that also deeply respected nature, characterized their architecture.
These civilizations were also influenced by astronomy with many of their structures
mathematically calculated based on the movement of heavenly bodies, a characteristic
shared with the ancient Egyptians.
The most famous and influential examples of Asian architecture include the following:

Longmen Cave Temples, Luoyang (China), 494 onwards – more than 100,000
images of Buddha (Siddhartha) and his disciples carved into the cliff walls
overlooking the Yi River.

Great Wall, Northern China, begun in the eight century B.C. – stone wall with a
length of over 3,700 miles, with observation towers. Built to protect China from
the northern invaders. Periodically allowed to crumble, then rebuilt before
decaying again.

Tōdai-ji Temple, Nara (Japan), c. 670 – oldest wooden building in existence.
Intricate construction techniques and detailing. Houses a large bronze image
called the Great Buddha.

Borobudur, Java Island (Indonesia), 792-824 – a pyramidal mountain to the gods
constructed of five terraces containing hundreds of meditating Buddhas. Axial
stairway leads to the top of the temple.

Lara Jonggrang, Prambanan (Indonesia), 832-856 – a square temple complex
with 232 temples. In the central court are three main shrines to the Hindu Trinity;
Vishnu, Brahmā, and Shiva.

Mukteshvara and Lingaraja, Bhubaneswar (India), ninth and twelfth centuries –
Hindu temples consisting of highly decorative towers.

Angkor Wat and The Bayon, Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII, Siem Reap
(Cambodia), 1112-1152 and the twelfth century – rectangular temple complexes
with a large central temple accented by corner towers, stairways to the temple
platform, and encircling galleries. Bayon feature hundreds of the eerily smiling
face of Avalokitesuara.

Surroundings, Pagan or Bagan (Burma or Myanmar), 1057-1287 – deserted city
featuring the remains of over 5000 ancient pagodas and temples reflecting a
myriad variety of architectural styles.

Forbidden City, Beijing (China), from 1406 – central palace consisting of
government buildings and religious shrines. Adjacent to Tiananmen Gate,
Tiananmen Square, and the Great Hall of the People, each an important work of
architecture in their own right.
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
Schwe Dagon Pagoda, Rangoon or Yangoon (Burma or Myanmar), fourteenth to
fifteenth century – pagoda complex built on a hill. Large gold plated stupa added
in the eighteenth century.

Pulguk-sa Temple, Kyongju (Korea), reconstructed in seventeenth century –
wood palace built on a stone foundation containing temples and meeting halls.
Feature building in an open-air museum of ancient Korean architecture.
The most famous and influential examples of Ancient American architecture include the
following:

Tikal, (Guatemala), began in 500 B.C. – Mayan city built in the jungle. The
Mayan civilization mysteriously declined after 900.

Chichén Itzá, Yucatan (Mexico), c. 550-950 – Mayan ruins later influenced by the
Totlecs. The two latest and impressive buildings are the pyramid of Kukulcan
and the Temple of the Warriors. Site features images of Quetzalcoatl, the
plumage serpent.

Nan Madol, Pohnpei (Micronesia), c. 1100-1400 – city constructed of artificial
islets built on a reef for ritual activities and royal home.

Machu-Picchu, (Peru), c. 1450 – the lost city of the Incas built atop a peak in the
Andes Mountains. The most spectacular archeological site in South America.

Easter Island or Rapa Nui, (Chile), of Polynesian descent – famous for its over
240 enigmatic 6-30 feet high stone statues (moas). The islands are one of the
most isolated places on earth, almost 1,200 miles from the nearest land.