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BAĞLAMSAL DİLBİLGİSİ
IDE 101
GRAMMAR PORTFOLIO
Hanife SERTİÇ
07285025
GRAMMAR: Grammar is the interpretation of even a sign.
Context of Stuation
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Place
She is sleeping today
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Time: present, future, past.
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Speaker: subject- hearer.
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Manner: how the speaker speaks.
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Intention
Context and Grammar
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Place: Adverbial and noun clauses
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Time: tenses, adverbial clauses of time
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Speaker: (hearer) passives, reported speech, modals.
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Manner: adverbs, modals, adverbial clauses of manner, noun clauses.
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Intention: gerund, infinitive, passive, active.
Time and Tense
Time is shaped according to the speakers’ point of view.
Back bone of the grammar
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Modals
Passives
Conditionals
Noun clauses
Gerund-infinitive
Adjectives-adverbs
Relative clauses
Parameter: Differences between two languages.
Principals: Similarities between two languages.
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SEMANTIC COMPONENT (ANLAMSAL BİLEŞİM)
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Motion
Direction
Intention
Period
End point
Linguistics: Study of language.
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Phonology: study of sounds.
Morphology: study of small units.
Semantics: it deals with the meaning of words, sentences.
Syntax: the structures of sentences.
Lexicology: study of words.
Ex: Colorless gren ideas sleep furiously
(gramatically acceptable but it has no meaning) (No Semantics)
*Tense gives the meaning of the word.
Ex: I am talking.
I talked. (the tense finished the speaking)
→ Active verbs are related with accomplishment verbs.
→ State verbs are related with achievement verbs.
* Not every verb has one use.
Ex: I consider Tom as a hardworking student. (opinion)
I am considering to go to İstanbul. (there is a plan)
VERBS
State verbs:
 No activity
 No effort
 No time
 No intention
(think, dream)
Activity verbs:
activity
effort
time
intention
(walk, think )
Achievement verbs:
no effort
activity
no intention
time
(find - tesadüfen)
Accomplishment verbs:
time
intention
activity
effort
(find- arayarak)
Oluş eylemi: tamamlanır.
Durum eylemi: sonu yok.
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The Relations Between Verb and Tense
Ex: Jane has been waiting here for an hour, but none of her friends has shown up yet.
(activity verb)
(accomplishment verb)
Jane waited for an hour, but nobody showed up.
(accomplishment verb)
Wait: Wait mormalde activity verb ama tensle bitmislik oldu ve kendi isteğimizle
bitirdigimiz için niyet olduğu için accomplishment verb.
Ex: I have smashed the car.
(state- achievement)
I am smashing the car.
(it is not possible)
* Fiil continious tenste kullanılamadığı için state verb. Eğer verb aynı özneyle ‘ing’li
yapılamıyorsa activity verb değildir.
Ex: The statue stands in the garden. (state verb because the statue has no intention no agent
no end point)
* All perfect tenses, all past tenses have end point. They are accomplishment verbs.
* If somebody stop sor gives an end to an action, it is accomplishment verb.
VERB
Tense
Aspect
Progressive A.
(ing. tenses)
(three aspect)
Simple A.
(simple tenses)
Modality
Perfective A.
(perfect tenses)
Ex: I have finished the work. (perfect aspect)
I will finish the work.(simple aspect)
I came to Mersin.(simple aspect)
* Tenslerin iki kullanımı vardır. Biri formal yani normal kullanımı diğeri ise tensin diğer
kullanımları.
Present perfect: içinde bulunduğumuz zaman içinde bitirilmiş eylemler için kullanılır.
Bitmişlik anlamı var. State verbler zaman zaman kullanılır ama çoğunlukla active verbler
kullanılır.
Simple present: her zaman yapılan eylemler için kullanılır.
Simple future: gelecekte yapacağımız eylemler için kullanılır.
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Simple progressive: şu anda yaptığımız işler için kullanılır.
Past progressive: geçmişte içinde bulunduğumuz zaman içinde yapıyor olduğumuz işler için
kullanılır.
Future progressive: gelecekte o noktada konuşma anında yapacak olduğumuz işler için
kullanılır.
Tell the difference
1. The class had been waiting for 20 minutes when the teacher came.
(the class were waiting, then the teacher came.)
2. The class got up when the teacher came.
(It is at the same time. The teacher came and at the same time the class got up.)
3. The class had left when the teacher came.
(the class left and then, after that action the teacher came.)
4. Mary lived with her aunt when her uncle died.
(Mary’s uncle died and she started tol ive with her aunt.)
5. I will have been living in İstanbul for five years by 2015.
(I will start to live in İstanbul by 2010 and I will still be living there 2015.)
Thematic Roles
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Agent
Instrument
Causer
Experiencer
Recipient
Location
Theme
Source
Goal
Patient
Agent: Mostly willing to action. It must have intention, living, instinct, free to move,
animate.
Causer: Inanimate, not living.(sebep olan şey.)
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Instrument: What we do things with by using preposition with. Fakat her zaman with ile
kullanılamayabilir yine de instrument olabilir. Bilinçli olarak yapılması gerekir.
Experiencer: (deneyimi yaşayan) (duyu duygu fiilleri)
Mostly sb affected psychologically by sth. It must be in the subject position and must be
affected by heart.
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I am very sorry. (I am experiencer)
Theme: can be animate or inanimate.
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I love you.
I: experiencer
You: theme (nesne etkilenmemiş bu yüzden theme.sadece sevilme işine konu olan kişi.)
Recipient: (beneficiary) (faydanılan kişi)
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I made the cake for you.
agent
recipient
Location:
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The students are in the classroom.
Location
Examples:
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The wind is blowing.
theme
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The wind damaged the house.
causer
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I am living Adana to go to İstanbul.
agent
source
goal
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I am studying to go to university.
goal
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The sun is shining. (theme)
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You smell nice.
source
Patient: Yapılan bir işten fiziksel olarak etkilenen için kullanılır. Canlı ya da cansız olabilir.
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I am melting the butter.
Agent
patient
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The cattle is blackened in the oven.
patient
source
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He smashed the radio into pieces using a hammer in the living room.
agent
patient
instrument
location
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I dried the tomatoes in the sun.
agent
patient
source
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She keeps sneezing and cleaning her nose.
patient
theme
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A friend lent her a handkerchief.
agent beneficiary theme
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Selin likes singing.
experiencer
Selin sings.
agent
Source: It takes from, off, down prepositions.
Ex: He fell off the window.
I hate you.
I am walking in the rain.
The ship is off the coast.
He borrowed a book from his friend.
He is reading the book in the light.
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Theme is general, source is more specific.
Goal: The goal must be concrete thing. It does not always take ‘to’ preposition.
Ex: to İstanbul
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come to a halt: it is not goal.
Sometimes causer can be agent or theme.
If causer is unliving, it is theme but if it is living, it is agent.
Ex: The ball broket he window
(causer)
I had the hairdresser cut my hair.
(agent)
(agent)
 There can be two agents in the causative sentences.
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VOICE (eylem çatısı)
How is voice formed?
1. syntactically (structure)
2. morphologically
3. semantically (lexically)
1. Syntactically
The child was kidnapped.(passive)
They greeted each other.(reciprocal) (mutual)
He cut himself.( reflexive)
He made his daughter clean the car.(causative)
2. Morpyhologicall
It is more common in Türkish.
Boya-t-mak
‘t’ = morphology
3. Semantically
Ex: break, send are active verbs but sometimes they have lexically meaning.
Ex: shave is reflexive
Break: (intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)
Send: (intention, cause, activity) (semantically causative)
Shave: (intention, self, cause) (semantically reflexive)
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Self does not always make reflexive. The action must be done intentionally and it must
affect the person.
Ex: He saw himself in the mirror. (reflexive is not certain. It can be by chance.)
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He looked himself in the mirror. (reflexive) (there is an aim)
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Active
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Passive (by)
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Reflexive
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Reciprocal (mutual) (one another, together, each other)
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Causative
Ex: They kissed. (semantically reciprocal)
The class is listening the teacher. (mutually)
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The class is listening to the teacher. (not reciprocal) because subject can be singular.
I am listening to the teacher
Correspond= reciprocal
Ex: I am corresponding with Tom. (reciprocal)
We are corresponding.
Causative: It has cause meaning.
Ex: He got the manager to punish his friend. (syntactically causative)
They demolished the old building.(lexically causative)
(they caused the old building to be demolished.)
We agreed on the test. (lexically reciprocal)
The Turkish explanation of reflexive: İşi yapan kişiyle yapılan iş aynı olacak ve işi yapan
kişi işten fiziksel olarak etkilenecek, duygusal olarak değil ve agent %100 olacak.
Voice
Active
Passive: lexical passive, syntactic passive
Cause
Reflexive
Reciprocal
Examples:
The school opened in september. (by the MEB) (lex. Passive because it takes ‘was’ )
The sugar dissolves in water. (C.I.) (çözünmek)
The sugar is dissolved in water. (çözmek) (there is no ‘by’ we do not know who does)
The meal cooked. (C.I.) (yemek pişti)
The meal was cooked by mother. (yemek pişirildi) (syntactically passive)
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Causative Inchoative (no by, cause)
Turkish explanation: Kendiliğinden bir sebebe bağlı olarak gelişen, kim tarafından yapıldığı
belli olmayan, genelde doğal olarak gelişen olaylarda kullanılır. Normalde passive olur ama
by kullanılmaz.
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It has the meaning of ‘cause’
‘by’ is not used
‘by’ must not be ‘agent’(the difference between lex. Passive and C.I.)
Examples:
1. boil: (kaynamak, kaynatmak)
The water was boiled by Jane.
2. melt: (erimek, eritmek)
The ice melt in the sun.
3. fry: (kızarmak, kızartmak)
The potatoes were fried by my mother last night.
4. thicken: (koyulaşmak, koyulaştırmak)
The ice on the river thickened. (was is not used. It occurs naturally.)
Water will boil after three minutes. (C.I.)
Example Sentences
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Her voice records well in the studio. (lex. Passive)
Silk creases easily. (C.I.)
The pilot landed the plane. (lex. Causative)
The car reversed and the driver put it in the garage. (lex. Passive)
She photographs well. (lex. Passive)
The interaction between voice forms and thematic roles
The snow on the mountain melted and the water filled the rivers.
Patient
act.(lex.C.I)
theme act.(lex.causative)
(causer)
The difference between C.I. and causative: C.I. mostly has patient in the thematic roles.
Causative form has theme, causer or agent.
Types of melt:
1. melt(v)(intransitive):
subj: always smt that can melt in the nature.
obj: no object because intransitive.
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2. melt (v)(transitive)
subj: agent,causer, doer.
obj: patient
Ex: The heat from the fire caused the building to Brown.
Subj. (noun phrase)
noun phrase(patient)(T.R)
(causer,theme) (T.R)
Cause: lexically causative
Brown: C.I.
Passives
Passive infinitive
People think that Mary has committed the crime.
Mary is thought to have committed the crime.
Passive of the gerund
I hate people calling me ‘madam’
I hate being called madam by people.
Passive of the infinitive
I would like people to call me ‘madam’
I would like to be called ‘madam’
I bear him no ill will.
No ill will is born for him.
Examples (active or passive)
1. The book earned him a fortune.
Earn: always active. There is no agent and it is lexically causative
2. I wish you luck.
Wish: state verb. It has no end point so it can not be passive.
3. They declared him president. He was declared president.
Whom/ who did they declare him? It is not possible.president is not object.
4. He lay still on the bed.
It is not passive because there is no noun phrase. There is prepositional phrase.
5. They made him promise.
He was made to promise.
6. They made him a promise.
He was made a promise
A promise was made for him.
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7. The sun dried the clothes.
(what did the sun dry?)
8. This stain will wash out with Kolsa.
It does not answer the questions of What/who(m). It answers ‘with what’ question.
9. Kolsa will wash out the stain. (passive)
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People think that Tom was dishonest.
Tom is thought to have been dishonest.
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People think that Tom was stealing from his friends.
Tom is thought to have been stealing from his friends.
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People think that Tom has come.
Tom is thought to have come.
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I hate people asking me personal activities.
I hate being asked personal activities.
Modals
Modals reflect a person’s part of view. They are different from facts. It reflects people’s
moods.
If you heat the water, it boils. (‘it must or should’ is impossible because it is a fact.)
Must/have to
Turkish explanation: ‘have to’ da bir zorunluluk var ama yapmak istenmiyor. ‘must’ da yine
zorunluluk var ama kişi bu zorunluluğu sindirmiştir.
Ex: You have to take aspirin. (doctor said)
You should take aspirin. (a friend said)
You could do that. (it is only suggestion)
Modality: İnsanların olaylara bakış açısıdır. Modal’ ın bir üst kavramıdır.
My car ws broken. (ıt is not related to yo. You do not know who stealed.)
Modality: (kiplik)
 Mood
 Passive
 Cond.
 Inversion
 Adverbials
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Auxiliary verb and modals
Similarities: Both of them is used to make the sentence negative or question.
Modal verb: It has the role of verb in the sentence.
Modal auxiliary: The sentence is made negative or question with modals.
I have to go home.
I don’t have to go home.
Can: modal aux.
Should: modal aux.
Must: modal aux.
Have to: modal verb
Could: modal aux.
Could have: modal aux.
May: modal aux.
Shall: modal aux.
Will: modal aux.
Need: modal verb
Dare to: modal verb
Be able to: modal verb
Have got to: modal aux.
Ought to: modal aux.
Had better: modal aux.
Could: yapabiliyordum
Was able to: yapabildim
Must: -meli, -malı
Had to: zorunda kaldı, zorundaydı
Needn’t: gerek yok
Needn’t have to: gerek yoktu ama yaptı
Didn’t need to: gerek yoktu ve yapmadı
Should have done: yapmalıydı
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Constituents
To find out the constituent of a sentence, it is possible to do constituency tests.
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The word string can be replaced by one word.
Mary is sitting in the garden.
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Mary is sitting there.
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A question can be asked.
Where is Mary sitting?
She is sitting in the garden.
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The constituent can be moved around.
In the garden is Mary sitting.
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The constituent can be the focus element X in a cleft sentence.
It was the garden that Mary is sitting in.
1. 1. Noun phrases
1.2. prepositional phrases
In the room / the room in
After dinner / dinner after
1. 3. verb phrases
1. 4. adjective phrases
2. Transtivity and Complementation
Transitivity depends on whether the verb takes on object or not. If a verb is transitive,
it takes an object. If intransitive or detransitive, it does not take an object or if ditransitive, it
takes two objects. Passive constructions decrease transitivity degree.
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Somebody stole my bag. / My bag was stolen.
Causative construction increase the transitivity degree as in,
A painter painted my house.
I had a painter paint my house.
(also it is small clause)
Painter acts both as the subject of the verb and the object of the causative verb “had”.
Complementation / adjuncts
Complements are noun phrases and the other parts of the sentence, which are optional
are called adjunts. Adjuncts are the adverbs or adverbials.
Complements are necassary words in the sentence. If a verb requires an object as a
complement, which is the obligatory element of a sentence, it is transitive. But if it does not
take a complement, then it is intransitive.
3. SENTENCE TYPES
1. Simple Sentences
In simple sentences, there is only one predicit. These sentences have only one verb
inflected with a tense marker.
Getting up early is my habit.
In simple sentences, there is only one predicit.
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I like getting up early (simple sentence) (because there is only one predicit)
2. Complex Sentence
In complex sentence, there are at least two propositions, one of which acts as the
independent proposition and the other acts as the dependent proposition.
4. Finiteness in Clauses
Finite and Non-finite
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Finite sentences bear tense markers on the verb phrase.
Allan speaks French.
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Finite sentences have mood (modality) on them.
You must avoid meeting people from your work environment at the weekends.
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The non-finite verb forms of the verb are the infinitive, gerund, the –ing participle or
the –ed participle forms.
I would like to get up early this morning.
Getting up early everyday is my life style.
A husband criticising me everytime is the last thing I want.(present participle)
It appears that ……. (non finite because it has no meaning)
The project finished, they now can take a break.
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Examples:
Mary sleeps like a dog. (finite)
You must go to bed early to get up early. (non-finite)
Terry is sitting in his armchair. (finite)
I found Terry sitting in his armchair. (non-finite)
Tom had telephoned his girlfriend before he got home. (finite)
There arrived Mary. (finite) (because you can say Mary arrived there.)
Clauses and Sentences
Sentences have a clause or more clauses.
Simple sentences have a clause.
The clause hierarchy
I think I would like coffee.
I would like coffee = subordinate clause.
I think I would like coffee = matrix clause.
Matrix clause: It is combination of subordination and main clause.
He said I think I would like coffee.
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I would like coffee = subordinate cl.
I think I would like coffee = second subordinate cl.
The whole sentence = matrix clause.
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Each complex sentence has at least two simple sentences.
How can you seperate this sentence? Is it complex sentence?
I saw Tom going home. / Tom was going home and I saw him doing so.
I consider Sawyer to be handsome. / Sawyer is handsome and I consider him so)
David loves. (non-finite) (it has no meaning David loves what? )
Susan found the job very difficult. / The job is very difficult and Susan found the job so.)
Tom make me go shopping. (small clause) (me is both subject and object)
Small clauses must have at least two verbs.
1. I consider Tom hardworking.
I consider Tom to be hardworking.
Tom is hardworking. I consider him to be so.
2.
I remember T om going to school on rainydays.
Tom used to go to school on rainydays.I remember him doing so.
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3.
A husband critisizing me every time is the last thing I want.
A husband critisizes me every time. This is the last thing I want.
4.
That John answered the phone surprized me.
John answered the phone. This surprized me.
Complex sentence structures
1. adverbial clauses
2. adjectival clauses
(the reason why…) (relative cl.)
3. noun clauses (why……)
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Reported speech
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Nominal relative cl.
4. small clauses
Conjunctions make complex sentences. They make two clauses. These are main
clause and subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses give extra information. Subordinate and
adverbial clauses make complex sentences.
Adjectival clauses also make complex sentences. Because there are two predicates.
Simple sentence has one predicate.
Coordinated / Compound Sentences ( birleşik / sıralı bağlı cümleler)
…….., but …….
………;however,…….
You must see it (to believe it) adjunct because it gives extra information also it is not a clause
it is an adverbial phrase.
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Phrase has not predicate.
Clause has predicate.
Adjuncts are adverbial clauses and phrases.
Adverbial phrases are simple sentences
Adverbial clauses are complex sentences.
Clause must have a subject and a predicate. Phrase has not a predicate. Gerund and infinitive
structures are phrases. If the sentence has two predicate, then it is complex sentence.
Homework: 10 tane complex sentence adları önemli
Clauses
A) According to their syntactic relations
1. Independent clauses
S + V + Complement
We left the office early yesterday.
2. Dependent clauses
Subordinator + S + V + (C) …… when….
B) According to their finiteness
1. Finite clauses
2. Non-finite clauses
Finite clauses contain a subject and a verb followed if necessary by other words.
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1. Subordinators (complex sentence)
After, although, when, which, what, etc.
2. Coordinators (compound sentences)
There are seven coordinators.
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
3. Conjunctive adverbs
Accordingly, besides, consequently, furthermore, nonetheless, otherwise etc.
Compound sentences: There are two independent clauses.
Complex sentences:
There are at least two clauses. (independent clause and dependent
clause)
Kinds of Sentences
1. Simple sentences
My friends like football.
I enjoy playing tennis and I often play it with my friends.
I play tennis with my friends every weekend.
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2. Compound sentences
Two or more simple sentences. There are three ways to link the two simple sentences to each
other.
a) with a coordinator
I enjoy playing tennis but I hate playing basketball.
b) with a conjunctive adverb
c) with a semicolon
I enjoy cinemas; I hate theatres.
3. Complx sentences
It has one independent clause an done or two dependent clauses.
a) Adverbial clauses beginning with a subordinator
(such as, when, while, because, etc…)
b) A dependent adjective clause (relative) beginning with a relative pronoun or relative adv.
such as where, when, why etc.
c) A dependent noun clause beginning with that a wh question, word, whether and sometimes
if.
I want to know whether he has passsed his class.
A noun clause functions as a noun, it can be the subject or the object or the independent
clause.
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Because I was ill, I didin’t go to school. (complex)
I didn’t g oto school because I was ill. (compound)
Adverbial clauses answer “why” question.
Compound- Complex Sentence
There are at least three clauses in this type.
I want to travel, but I have to work in my family’s business, which needs workforce.
CONJUNCTIONS
1. coordinating conjunctions
(and, so, or, but, yet, for, nor)
2. correlative conjunctions
(both….and, not only…but also, neither…nor, either…or)
3. subordinators
Time
After, before, when, while, as, by the time, till, until, since, as soon as, as long as, so long as,
whenever, every time, now that, no sooner than, hardly when, barely when, afterwards…
Cause (reason)
Because, since, as, in asmuch as, seeing that, seeing as, because of, on account of, thanks to,
owing to, due to, so…that..)
Purpose
So that, in order that…
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Contrast
Coordinator: but, yet
Subordinator: although, despite…
Sentence connector: on the other hand, however…
Prepositional phrase: in contrasr to…
Reason
Coordinator: for, in that, because…
Subordinator: as, since, because…
Prepositional phrase: because of, owing to, in view of, thanks to…
Purpose
So that, lest…
Manner
Subordinator: as if, as though…
Prepositional phrase: like
Likeness
Subordinator: just as….so….
Just as Tom is hardworking, so is his sister.
Sentence connector: similarly, likewise, correspondingly…
REDUCTION
Adv. cl.
Noun cl.
Rel cl.
Subjects
subjects
auxiliary verbs
Auxiliary verbs
modals
rel. Pronoun
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Conjunction
future time
the change of the verb
PARTICIPLES
Present
Past
(V ing)
(V 2)
Perfect
(having V3)
progressive tenses
adjective
red. of rel. cl.
Red. of rel. cl.
Red. of rel cl.(passive)
red. of adv. cl.
Red. of adv. cl.
Red. of adv. cl. (passive)
(passive)
Örnekler yazılacak
GERUND / PARTICIPLES
Seeing is believing. (gerund )
Seeing my friends, I’m going near them.
In this sentence, there are two verbs so there are two sentences and so it is participle. Also, if
there is comma, it is participle. But sometimes, even if there is not comma, it can be participle
as in small clauses.
I saw him going home. (participle)
(it is reduced but it is in the middle of the sentence so it does not take comma but it is
participle)
PARAGHRAPH
[ ( For as long as people can remember), (small towns like Stone Greek and Pineville in
Northern Alabama have been hit by storms every spring)]. [[They are as predictable as the
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apple Hossoms that are always shaken loose from the trees] and [blown along the country
roads]]. [(Some trees maybe knocked over), (or the roof of a building might be slightly
damaged), (but usually the effects of the storm are more convenient than deadly)]. This year
was really different.
Gerunds and Present Participle
Gerunds are compliments in the sentence so they cannot be omitted. Complements answer
“what” , “who” questions.
Participles are not necessary so they can be omitted. They are adjuncts. Adjuncts answer
“when, how, where, why” questions.
Ex: Walking in the park, I smiled at the flowers. (when?)
(while)
Walking in the park, I missed the bus. (why ?)
Walking in the park, she injured her leg. (how?)

These are adjuncts so participles. Also, if there is comma, it is another clue.
Noun clauses
Adverbial clauses
Others
Noun clauses
if clauses
thematic roles
Reported speech
reason
gerund, inf. Article
Nominal relative cl.
manner
adj.
Adv.
Relative Clauses vs. Nominal Relative Clauses
I haven’t seen what he left. (noun clause. Why?)
Because it can be represented “it”. Also, it can be omitted and it answers the question “what”.
I haven’t seen where he put the book. (noun clause)
I know how he succeeded it. (noun clause)
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I know why he said so. (noun clause)
I haven’t seen what he left.=the thing which he left. (nominal rel. clause)
Where he put the book= the place he put the book.
How he succeed it =the way in which he…
Why he said so = the reason when he said so

Since its function is noun. İt is nominal clause.
Adjective vs. Adverb
An adverb defines the verb in terms of direction manner, place, etc.
An adjective defines the noun in terms of quality, quantity, etc.
There was no reply to my questions; and on looking around I saw only Joseph bringing in a
poil of parridge fort he dogs, and Mrs. Heathcliff leaning over the fire, diverting herself with
burning a bundle of matches which had fallen from the chimney piece as she restored the teacanister to its place. The farmer, when he deposited his burden took a critical survey of the
room, and in cracked tones, grated out.
1. matrix clause
1. main clause: ( I saw only Joseph)
1.1. subordinate clause: (on looking… around)
1.2. subordinate clause: (Joseph ….dogs)
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2. matrix clause
1. main clause: (I saw …Mrs. Heathcliff)
1.1. subordinate cl.: (learning over… fire)
1.2. subordinate cl: (diverting matches)
1.3. subordinate cl: (which had.. chimney)
1.4. subordinate cl: (as she… place)
3. matrix clause
1. main clause: (the farmer…..room)
1.1. subordinate clause: (when ….burden)
1. The razor feels sharp.
2. The river froze solid.
(link verb) (the razor sharp)
(it was solid)
3. Tom slid the door shut. (it was shut)
4. The vase broke clean.
(it was clean)
5. He fell flat on the face. (he fell flat)
6. He got his answer right. (the answer was right)
7. I closed the lid tight.
(the lid become tight)
8. The film fell sharp of my expectation.
9. Wipe the floor clean.
10. It is raining hard.
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Countable vs. Uncountable
Rules
1. not every ‘s’ makes plural: news
2. not every singular noun is necessarily singular: fish
3. not all ‘s’ marker makes countable nouns: peas, lentils
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