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Nonfinite Verbs in English infinitives -ing verbs and participles -ed verbs and participles infinitive There are two types of infinitive: to-infinitive and bare infinitive. The bare infinitive is just the infinitive without to, which is identical in form with the base of the verb. (1) Grammatical forms The infinitive has no tense distinctions, nor person or number contrasts. But they can be passive and take the simple, progressive, perfective and perfective progressive forms, e.g. I have a lot of work to do. She had no need to be worrying. He is said to have left Shanghai. The president was reported to have been flying across the Atlantic. A negative infinitive is formed by adding not or never immediately before the infinitive sign to. e.g. We decided not to buy that house. She wished never to see him again. (2) To-infinitive and bare infinitive Infinitives commonly occur with to, but in some contexts it is necessary to use the bare infinitive, and in some other cases the infinitive sign is optional. The following is a summing up of the situations in which the bare infinitive is used. (a) The bare infinitive is generally used to follow the modals including need and dare. e.g. You must do as you are told. (b) The bare infinitive is used to follow semi-auxiliaries, e.g. You'd better have that bad tooth pulled out. I happened to be out when he called. (c) The bare infinitive is used to combine with such modal idioms as would rather, would sooner, would (just) as soon, may/ might (just) as well, cannot but, cannot help but, etc. e.g. I would rather stay at home. Since it's a fine day, we might as well walk. He would rather listen to others than talk himself. I 'd just as soon go by train as drive. I really don't want to go there. I'd just as soon turn round and go back. (d) The bare infinitive is commonly used to follow rather than and sooner than, especially when rather than / sooner than takes the initial position, e.g.: Rather than cause trouble, he left. Sooner than marry that man, she would earn her living as a waitress. But when rather than takes other positions in the sentence, the following infinitive may be with or without to, e.g. He decided to go fishing rather than stay in the dormitory. The manager believes it is important to invest in new machinery rather than to increase wages. (e) The bare infinitive can be combined with a main verb to form some fixed combinations such as make believe let slip make do (with / on) let go (of) let drop leave go of let fall hear tell (of) let fly (at) (let ... ) go hang For example: He did all that just to make believe. We hadn't time for luncheon, but we made do with sandwiches. Don't let go (of) the handle. He let fall a hint of his intentions. (f)The bare infinitive usually appears after "causative verb +object“. e.g. We can't let this go on. Abbey made him stay to tea. He won't have us criticize his work. But when the causative verb occurs in the passive, the bare infinitive should be turned into a to-infinitive. e.g. Jim made her tell him everything. (g) The bare infinitive usually occurs after "sense verb + object". The sense verbs include see, hear, observe, notice, feel, watch, look at and listen to. e.g. I didn't hear you say that. We felt the house shake. He doesn't like listening to other people talk. But when the sense verb occurs in the passive, it should be followed by a toinfinitive. e.g. They saw him enter the building. --He was seen to enter the building. (h) The bare infinitive is used after "have known + object“. e.g. Have you ever known him tell a lie? I have never known that man smile. (i)The bare infinitive often appears after help or “help + object”, but to-infinitive is also possible, e.g.: Can I help (to) lift that box? I'll help you (to) solve the problem. (j) The bare infinitive usually appears after the preposition except / but when there is a form of the main verb do before the preposition, which is otherwise followed by a to-infinitive. e.g. They did nothing but wait. There's no choice but to wait. Likewise, in some SVC constructions, if the subject contains a form of the main verb do, the infinitive in the complement may be with or without to. e.g. The only thing I can do now is (to) go on by myself. (k) The bare infinitive also appears after "Why ... /Why not ... ?“. e.g. Why argue with him? Why not give Mary some flowers? The bare infinitive can also be used in the following idiomatic expressions.. Go post a letter for me. Come have a chat with me. Try eat a little. I'll try help him. Some few notes on the use of the infinitive sign To avoid repetition, the infinitive sign can sometimes be used alone, that is to say, the base in the to-infinitive can be omitted. sometimes together with its complementation. This kind of omission is quite common in informal style, e.g. George says that he is going to leave Shanghai, but I don't think he really wants to. You may go if you wish to. If the base of the infinitive is the verb be or have, it should be retained, even though its complementation is omitted. e.g. A: Aren't you the manager? B.. No, I don't want to be. A.. He hasn't finished yet. B: Well, he ought to have. In some contexts, both the to-infinitive and its complementation can be omitted so that no trace remains of the infinitive. e.g. You will make it if you try (to). I'd like to do it now, but I haven't got the time (to). (2) Ellipsis of the infinitive sign When two to-infinitives are coordinated by and ,or the second to is usually omitted unless there is a contrastive meaning. e.g. I intend to call on him and discuss this question again. When there is a contrastive meaning, the second to must be retained. e.g. To be or not to be, that is the question. The infinitive sign cannot be omitted if there is no coordinator between the coordinate infinitives. e.g. Please go to the seaside to swim, to get suntanned. Nor can any infinitive sign be omitted if a sequence of infinitives occur in a parallel construction, e.g. The student must learn to read extensively, to analyze what he reads and to summarize the main points presented. (3) Infinitive to or preposition to The word to often presents a problem for Chinese students. For instance, in "object to" and "be used to", is the word to a preposition or an infinitive sign? To solve this problem, we may try to put a noun after it. If a noun or a noun equivalent is possible, it proves to be a preposition; otherwise, it is an infinitive sign. The following is a summary of the collocations in which the item to is a preposition, not an infinitive sign: (a) Verb+ preposition to. e.g. add to attest to contribute to agree to bow to object to adhere to cling to get to admit to come to pertain to allude to correspond to react to amount to confess to resort to attend to consent to revert to refer to relate to submit to stick to take to witness to yield to, etc For example: When it comes to helping his wife with the housework, John never grumbles. (b) Verb + noun / pronoun + preposition to. e.g. ascribe ... to devote :.. to apply ... to dedicate ... to attribute ... to owe ... to abbreviate ... to prefer ... to accustom ... to reconcile ... to confine ... to reduce ... to commit ... to resign ... to, etc For example: He attributes his success to hard work. The doctor devoted himself to finding a cure. (c) Verb + -ed participle + preposition to, e.g. be accustomed to be reconciled to be abbreviated to be devoted to be reduced to be given to be resigned to be used to, etc. For example, He is resigned to losing the competition. He was reduced to begging for food. (d) Verb + adverb particle + preposition to. e.g. get round to look forward to get down to face up to get near to feel up to For example, After a long delay, he got round to writing the letter. I'm so tired I don't feel up to going shopping today. (e) Adjective + preposition to. e.g. adjacent to preferable to averse to similar to deaf to superior to equal to sensitive to loyal to tantamount to, etc For example, That is tantamount to saying that you do not agree. She is sensitive to criticism. (f) Noun + preposition to, e.g. obstacle to indifference to limit to key to aid to answer to objection to hindrance to, etc For example, Your lack of experience will prove hindrance to your earning a livelihood. The classroom is equipped with visual aids to teaching English. (g) Complex prepositions ending in to. e.g. according to prior to as to thanks to owing to in addition to preliminary to in relation to preparatory to with a view to previous to with an eye to For example: He lit a cigar previous to leaving the house. He bought the old house with an eye to making it a hotel. Infinitive ( II) This lecture is concerned with combinations of infinitives with adjectives, nouns, and verbs. 1 Adjective + infinitive Here "adjective + infinitive" refers to the combination that acts as complement in SVC patterns. These combinations are superficially similar but semantically different constructions, varying in meaning, that is, in "deep structure", with the different categories of adjectives. Semantically,, these combinations fall into three types, each of which contains several sub-types. (1) Type I This type of SVC pattern is characterized by the fact that the subject of the main clause is also the logical subject of the infinitive. The adjectives occurring in this pattern are all dynamic adjectives, which can be subdivided into the following categories. (a) Adjectives showing emotional feelings, e.g. He is glad to help others. He was very pleased to be given the job. I'm sorry to be late. I was surprised to see how angry he was. (b) Adjectives showing good or bad luck, e.g. He was lucky to be able to find a job. He was fortunate to escape being injured in the accident. She was unlucky not to win the game. (c) Adjectives showing mental state or personal attitude, e.g. He is anxious to see her. I'm determined to finish the work tonight. We are ready to make the attempt. If the subject of the main clause is not the logical subject of the infinitive, the logical subject should be expressed with an introductory for: I'm quite willing for your brother to come with me. I'm afraid for her to go swimming alone. (d) Adjectives showing character or behavioral trait, e.g. He is foolish to meet her again. She was careless to break the cup. You are ~kind to say so. They were thoughtful to come home early. These sentences can be transformed into~ a corresponding IT-pattern, e.g. It is foolish of him to meet her again. It was thoughtful of them to come home early. (2) Type I In this type of SVC pattern, the subject of the main clause is the logical object of the infinitive. Here, the adjectives are generally static adjectives, e.g. That question is difficult to answer. This car is expensive to overhaul. Dirty water is nasty to drink. She is pleasant to talk to. These sentences can be transformed into an anticipatory IT-construction.. It is difficult to answer that question. It is nasty to drink dirty water. But there are constructions of the same type that cannot be so transformed.. The coffee is bitter to taste. They are attractive to look at. (3) Type I In this type, the subject of the main clause may be the logical subject or logical object of the infinitive. e.g. These books are easy to sell. = It is easy to sell these books. = These books sell easily. But in most cases, the adjective can be turned into a corresponding adverb in deep structure. e.g. He is quick to take offence. = He takes offence quickly. He was hesitant to take action. = He took action hesitantly. 2 Noun (phrase) + infinitive Here, the infinitive is used as post modification in noun phrases. About "noun + infinitive", there are three points worth mentioning. (1) Semantic relations Semantically, the noun (phrase) and the infinitive that follows may form different relations, for instance, a subject-verb relation, that is, the noun (phrase) is the logical subject of the infinitive. e.g. Jim was the last guest to arrive ( = who arrived). Sometimes, the noun (phrase) is the logical object of the infinitive, that is, a verb-object relation, e.g. He has a large family to support. This is the best book to read. In the case of an intransitive infinitive, an appropriate preposition should be added, e.g. The boy needs a friend to play with. There is nothing to talk about. Sometimes the noun phrase is in apposition to the infinitive that follows. e.g. The boy had an impulse to jump over the fence. I have no wish to quarrel with you. (2) Infinitives: active or passive As post-modification, the infinitive may appear in active or passive voice. In some contexts, both active and passive forms are possible. e.g. Give me a list of people to invite / to be invited. The man to consult ! to be consulted is Mr Johnson. But in other cases, an active form seems more natural than the passive, e.g. I have got a lot of letters to write. There is a lot of work to do. In still other cases, a passive form sounds more appropriate, e.g. The cases to be investigated must not be made public in press. The question to be discussed at the next meeting will be a hard nut to crack. (3) "Noun + infinitive" vs.“ noun + preposition+ ing" With some nouns such as attempt, chance, effort, freedom, intention, necessity, opportunity, reason, time, way, etc, the post-modifier may be an infinitive or a "preposition +-ing" with no difference in meaning, e.g. There is no necessity to buy / of buying a new car. The doctor made a bold attempt to save / of saving the child's life. With some other nouns, it is appropriate to use an infinitive rather than a "preposition + -ing" as postmodifier. e.g. They have the ability to produce nuclear weapons. He is under no obligation to do that. These nouns include ability, agreement, ambition, anxiety, curiosity, disposition, mind, obligation, permission, refusal, reluctance , temptation, tendency, wish, etc. There are still other nouns which do not admit of an infinitive as post-modifier; a "preposition + -ing" is normally used, e.g. There is no hope of winning the game. Other nouns in the same use include : aptitude, delay, difficulty, excuse, experience, interest, genius, habit, idea, motive, objection, passion, plan, possibility, skill, success, etc. 3 Verb + infinitive Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive to form a verb-object relation, that is, the infinitive functions as the object of the verb. These collocations fall into three types: (1) verb + infinitive, (2) verb+ object + infinitive, (3) verb + (object) + infinitive. (1) Verb + infinitive There are verbs that can be directly followed by an infinitive rather than an ing form as object, e.g. We must agree to differ. I aim ( = hope) to finish it tomorrow. He demanded to be told everything. He claimed to be the owner of the car. These verbs include agree, aim, apply, arrange, choose, claim, decide, demand, desire, determine, endeavor , expect, hope, learn, manage, offer, pledge, prepare, pretend, profess, promise, refuse, resolve, seek, swear, threaten, undertake, venture, volunteer, vow, etc. Some of these verbs such as agree, arrange, promise, resolve, claim, decide, demand, determine, hope, pretend, profess, swear, threaten, etc can also be followed by a corresponding that-clause, e.g. We agreed to start early. = We agreed that we would start early. I hope to be able to come. = I hope that I'll be able to come. (2) Verb + object + infinitive There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an infinitive unless the verb and the infinitive are intervened by a noun or pronoun. These verbs include five groups: (a) Verbs of perception or sense verbs such as see, hear, watch, feel, etc, e.g. Did you see him enter the building? (b) Causative verbs such as have, let, make, etc, e.g. Don't forget to have your children come with you. (c) Some phrasal verbs such as arrange for, ask for, rely on, etc, e.g. I'll arrange for you to meet the manager. (d) Verbs showing mental state such as consider, declare, find (= consider), prove, think, believe, discover, feel (= think), imagine, judge, suppose, understand, etc, e.g. I believe him to be reliable. (e) Verbs having the force of "advice", "permission", "forbiddance", etc such as advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend, require, urge, etc, e.g. I advised him to give up smoking. There are a few points to note about t~ae use of these verbs: First, the infinitive after verbs under "group d" is invariably "to be", e.g. We know him to be reliable. He declared himself to be innocent. Secondly, after such verbs as consider, declare, find, prove, think, the infinitive "to be" can be omitted, e.g. He proved himself (to be) innocent. If the infinitive "to be" is in the perfective form, then it cannot be omitted: We considered him to have been foolish. Thirdly, in view of the fact that the noun or pronoun in this context may be viewed as the object of the finite verb that goes before or as the logical subject of the infinitive that follows, an alternative construction with a that-clause is available for interpretation, e.g. They believed him to be insane. =hey believed that he was insane. Some of the verbs of "group e" such as advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend can also be followed directly by an –ing form as object. Compare: She advised us to give up smoking. She advised giving up smoking. And some may also be followed by a that-clause: They required us to get there before nine. They required that we (should) get there before nine. (3) Verb + (object) + infinitive With some verbs such as ask, can't bear, hate, intend, like prefer, want, etc, the object is optional, that is, these verbs can occur either in the "verb + infinitive" construction or in the "verb+ object + infinitive" pattern, e.g. Do you intend to make a long stay there? We didn't intend them to act like that. Do you like to play chess? Most of these verbs can also be followed by a thatclause, e.g. She asked to do more work.' She asked them to give her more work to do. She asked that she be given more work to do. Some may also be directly followed by an –ing form, e.g. I hate troubling you about trifles. She preferred dressing formally to wearing sport clothes. -ing Verbs In this book, the term "-ing participle" is used to include both the traditional "present participle" and the "gerund". The present lecture is devoted to the collocation of -ing participle with verbs. If need be, mention will also be made of the contrast between –ing participle and corresponding use of the infinitive. 1 Collocation of –ing participle with verbs This section is concerned with two collocations: "verb +-ing form" and "verb + object + preposition + -ing form". (1) Verb + -ing form There are verbs that can only be followed by an –ing form rather than an infinitive as object. These verbs include : admit, acknowledge, anticipate, advocate, appreciate, avoid, can't help, can't resist, can't stand, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, don't mind, ensure, enjoy, escape, excuse, evade, facilitate, fancy, favor, finish, give up, imagine, include, keep (on), mind, miss, pardon, postpone, practice, put off, resent, report, risk, stop, suggest, etc. About the logical subject of the –ing participle, it need not be expressed if it is the subject of the main clause e.g. She always detested seeing a bullfight. They denied giving any information to help the police. He didn't contemplate coming with us on this trip. I can't resist bargaining. If the –ing form has a logical subject of its own, it must be expressed one way or another, e.g. Please pardon my disturbing you. We appreciate your inviting us to your party. The logical subject of the –ing participle may be a noun or a genitive noun; it may also be realized by a pronoun in objective case or by a possessive determiner. But in colloquial speech, a common case noun or an objective pronoun is frequently favored, e.g. I don't mind John moving to another house. I don't mind John's moving to another house. I don't mind him moving to another house. I don't mind his moving to another house. Some of the verbs listed above such as acknowledge, admit, advocate, anticipate, appreciate, deny, fancy, imagine, suggest, mean, mention, propose, recall, recollect, understand, etc, can also take a corresponding that-clause as object. e.g. The watchman reported finding the door open. = The watchman reported that he had found the door open. He anticipated getting much pleasure from the reading of that book. = He anticipated that he would get much pleasure from the reading of that book. (2) Verb + object + preposition + -ing form There are verbs that cannot be directly followed by an –ing form unless it is interrupted by an object and a preposition. These verbs include trick, mislead, shame, surprise, trap, stop, prevent, restrain, hinder, save, etc, and the prepositions commonly used in this collocation are into and from. e.g. He tricked her into marrying him by pretending that he was rich. Her sudden question surprised him into betraying himself. In some of these collocations such as "prevent / stop somebody from doing something", the preposition from can sometimes be omitted, except that the finite verb occurs in the passive, e.g. We must prevent the trouble {from} spreading. I shall stop you (from) destroying yourself. But the preposition from cannot be left out if it is a passive sentence: It can't be stopped from happening here. Similar collocations such as "thank somebody for doing something", "congratulate somebody on doing something", and "accuse somebody of doing something" can also be included in these patterns. 2 Verbs followed either by infinitive or by – ing participle There are verbs that can be followed either by an –ing form or by an infinitive. With some of these verbs, the choice between the two makes no difference in meaning; with others, however, different choices result in different interpretations. Either infinitive or –ing participle without change of meaning. Verbs that can take either an infinitive or an –ing form as object include attempt, begin, can't bear, continue, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, start, etc. Following these verbs, an infinitive or an –ing participle can alternate without change in basic meaning. There are cases, however, where the transforms are not in free variation. (a) After process verbs such as begin, cease, continue, start and emotive verbs such as can't bear, deserve, dread, hate, intend, like, loathe, love, need, neglect, omit, plan, prefer, require, the infinitive is commonly used to refer to a specific act while the –ing participle is used to refer to a general act. e.g. I can't bear living alone. I can't bear to see the child so badly treated. Phil prefers doing it that way. He prefers to go by train this evening. (b) After need, want, require, deserve, an active – ing form can be used to denote a passive meaning which can also be expressed by a passive infinitive, e.g. This letter needs signing by the manager. = This letter needs to be signed by the manager. The house wants rewiring. = The house wants to be rewired. (c) After begin and start, either infinitive or -ing form is possible, but when the infinitive is a stative verb, it normally goes with begin. e.g. We began to see what he meant. She began to believe his story. When begin / start is in the progressive, it is also an infinitive, not an –ing form that is normally used. e.g. It's beginning to rain. I'm starting to work on my essay next week. (2) Either infinitive or –ing form with different meanings The verbs that admit of either an infinitive or an –ing form with different meanings fall into five sub-classes: (a) After remember and forget, the infinitive refers to a second act that follows the first, and the –ing participle to a previous event, e.g. Can't you remember telling me the story last night? = You told me the story last night. Can't you remember it? You must remember to tell him all that. = You must tell him all that. Don't forget it. The use of regret also presents such a contrast: I regret telling you that John stole it. = I regret that I told you ... I regret to tell you that John stole it. = I'm sorry to tell you ... But "I regret telling you ... " can also be interpreted as: I regret that I am telling you ... (b) After stop, leave off, go on, the -ing participle functions as object, while the infinitive as adverbial of purpose. Compare: They stopped watching TV at 9:30. They stopped to watch TV at 9:30. He left off writing the book. He left off to write the book. (c) After try, mean, can't help, the choice between an infinitive and an –ing form depends on the meaning of the preceding verb itself. Compare: Your plan would mean spending a lot of money. I didn't mean to spend too much money on that project. If you want to improve the taste, try adding some sugar. He tried to improve the taste by adding some sugar. (d) After agree, decide, there is a choice between the infinitive and "preposition + -ing“. e.g. They agreed to share the remuneration. They agreed on sharing the remuneration. (e) After encourage, permit, allow, recommend, advise, authorize, either the –ing participle or the infinitive with an expressed logical subject can be used, e.g. She doesn't allow smoking here. She doesn't allow us to smoke here. -ed Participle This lecture is devoted to -ed participle (traditionally known as "past participle") used as pre-modifier and as subject / object complement. 1 -ed participle as pre-modifier As pre-modifier in a noun phrase, -ed participles are mostly derived from transitive verbs; only a few come from intransitive verbs. (1) -ed participle derived from transitive verbs As premodifier, transitive -ed participles usually denote a passive meaning or a sense of completion. This is distinguished from –ing participles which may come from transitive and intransitive verbs and which usually express an active meaning or a sense of incompletion. Compare: frozen food a bored traveler a lost cause a conquered army a finished article the spoken language a recorded talk a closed shop written language a freezing wind a boring journey a losing battle a conquering army the last finishing touch a speaking bird a recording machine the closing hour writing paper As pre-modifier, some -ed participles cannot be used alone unless they are combined with a negative prefix "un-" or when they are combined with an adverb to form a compound, e.g. uninvited guests a badly-built house untold sufferings far-fetched reasons unheard-of stories newly-born children an undetermined boundary half-baked ideas an unedited story highly-developed industry an unexpected happening a properly-started engine (2) -ed participle derived from intransitive verbs The use of intransitive -ed participles as pre-modifiers tends to be limited only to a few verbs: retired, escaped, faded, withered, fallen, expired, risen , returned, vanished, grown. These -ed participles have the sense of completion but imply no passive meaning, e.g. a retired teacher an escaped prisoner a faded flower a withered flower fallen leaves an expired lease the risen sun a returned student the vanished treasure a grown man A few such -ed participles cannot be used as pre-modifiers unless they are combined with an adverb to form a compound. For instance, instead of " ~ a behaved boy" or " " a travelled businessman", we can say "a well-behaved boy" or "a widely-travelled businessman". 2 -ed participle as complement -ed participles that can be used as complement mostly come from transitive verbs. Adjectival -ed participles can generally function either as complements or as pre-modifiers, except for some relics of Old English. (1) Old English -ed participles In Modern English, there are a few relics of Old English –ed participles that survive only as adjectives and which are mostly different in form from their Modern -ed participles. Some of these take one form when used as premodifier and another form when used as complement, For example, A bounden duty is a duty one is bound to do. A drunken man is one who has got drunk. A lighted candle is one that has been lit. Wood that has rotted is rotten wood. Molten steel is steel that has been melted. Shrunken clothes are clothes that have shrunk in the wash. A clean-shaven man is one who has (been) shaved clean. A bent back means a back that is bent. But with knees we should say bended knees. Blessed are those who live their lives in blessed calmness. I'm blest if I know. ( -- I don't know at all. ) He is our beloved leader; he is the most beloved of all the leading cadres. (2) Verbs admitting of-ed participle as object complement Verbs that can take an -ed participle as object complement fall into three groups. The first group includes verbs of perception and verbs denoting mental state such as see, hear, feel, find, think, etc, e.g. I saw the students assembled in the hall. Everybody thought the battle lost. The second group includes causative verbs such as make, get, have, keep, etc, e.g. I have my hair cut every two weeks. Please keep us informed of the latest developments. Note that the verb have has three different meanings in the following contexts: We had the problem solved. She had her arm broken in an accident. I have not any money left. The third group includes verbs denoting hope, expectation, order, such as like, want, wish, order, etc. e.g. I don't want any of you (to be) involved in the scandal. The viewers wish the serial film (to be) continued. 3 Some few notes on "dangling participles" Let us first of all take a look at the "attachment rule" for identifying the subject. (1) "Attachment rule" and "dangling participles“ When an –ing or -ed participle construction is used as a relative or adverbial clause, its logical subject is usually identifiable with the subject or other element of the main clause. It is through this relationship that the participle construction is "attached" to the main clause. This is known as the "attachment rule", For example, Sitting at the back as we were, we couldn't hear a word. Jolted by the collision, Harry suffered a sprained back and a broken knee. He was lying in the couch, enjoying his pipe. The hunter saw a huge lion drinking at the spring. He was hurt by a stone dropped from the roof. Violation of the "attachment rule" will result in a "dangling participle": * Opening the cupboard, a skeleton fell out. * Grilled on charcoal, we liked the fish much better. (2) Problems about the acceptability of "dangling participles" Linguists are divided in opinion about the acceptability of "dangling participles". Prescriptive grammarians condemn all "dangling" constructions, while descriptive linguists take a more liberal point of view. "Dangling" constructions should not be regarded as objectionable indiscriminately. These constructions are frequently found in formal scientific writing, in which it is general practice to avoid using personal subjects. In informal style, so long as they do not cause ambiguity or confusion in meaning, "dangling participles" should also be viewed as normal and acceptable. Only those "dangling" constructions are objectionable or unacceptable that cause ambiguity or suggest absurd interpretations. From pedagogical point of view, however, beginners in English should not be encouraged to use "dangling" constructions unless in scientific writing. Now assess the following: When installing a boiler, the floor space which is available is very important. Using the electric energy, it is necessary to change its form. Having been deserted by his guide, there seemed little hope that the explorer would find his way through the jungle. When driving carelessly, it is easy to have an accident. Standing on the church tower, the whole village could be seen. Having eaten our lunch, the car pushed its way through the tortuous canyon.