Download 7. Theory of information processing

Section B: Acquiring, developing
and performing movement skills
7. Theory of information processing
in the performance of motor skills
Syllabus
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Basic models of information processing
Memory
Reaction time
Feedback
Phases of learning movement skills
Transfer of learning
Motivation
Theories related to arousal levels
• Two of the better known models are Whiting’s
and Welford’s models
• Although they use slightly different
terminology both models reflect the same
process:
– Stimulus identification (input)
– Response identification (central)
– Response programming (output)
Stimulus identification
• Deciding if a stimulus has happened
• Stimulus: information that stands out, that the person
pays attention too
• This is done by the sensory system receiving info.
• E.G. deciding the direction and speed a ball is travelling
• This stage involves the perceptual process
• Relies on sensory system
– Exteroceptors – extrinsic information
– Proprioceptors – nerve receptors in muscles/joints
(intrinsic information)
– Interoceptors – information from internal organs (heart,
lungs etc)
Response selection
• Deciding on what to do with the info you’ve
got.
• This connects with the previous stage
• E.G. The ball is high and to the left, so I must
move to my left to catch it
• Perception (assembling sensations into usable
representations), selective attention (filters
irrelevant information), STM and LTM are all
involved
Response programming
• The brain receives the decision about which
movement to make, and organises the motor
system (muscles and nerves) to do it
• E.G. Sends out messages via nerves to the
relevant muscles to move to the left
• Motor programmes or schemas are used
• Feedback
Welford’s model
Whiting’s model
Memory
• All information being received by the senses is
stored in the memory. In sport, perceiving the
flight of a ball, or knowing which muscle
commands to use to be able to perform a
somersault, require that remembered
information be used in the execution of the
action.
Selective attention
• The process of selective attention is responsible
for selecting relevant from irrelevant information
from the display.
• The efficiency of the short-term sensory store
and the selective attention process is influenced
by several factors:
• Experience
• Arousal
• Quality of instruction
• Intensity of stimulus
Selective attention can be improved
by:
• Lots of relevant practice
• Increasing the intensity of the stimulus
• Use of language appropriate to performer –
improve motivation and arousal
• Direct attention
• There are three stores in memory:
– Short-term sensory stores (STSS)
– Short-term memory (STM)
– Long-term memory (LTM)
• There are three processes within memory:
– Encoding (putting information into a store)
– Maintenance (keeping it alive)
– Retrieval (finding encoded information)
STSS
• All the information coming in from the environment
can be stored in the STSS.
• This means that these stores must have a huge
capacity, but these memories only last for about half a
second or less.
• Separate STSS compartments are thought to operate
for each form of sensory information. It is
subconscious, and if not immediately attended to, is
lost.
• Therefore selective attention takes place in the STSS. If
the information is useful it will be encoded.
STM
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Only information that is attended to is moved from STSS to the STM. That is why it
is important in sport that attention is maintained whilst performing a skill.
The capacity of the STM is limited. Information can be retained for up to 60
seconds, but the capacity is limited to 5-9 items.
Chunking helps. This is the idea of storing not single items like letters but groups of
items as single pieces of information.
e.g. the letters B D E make up three items of information whilst the word BED
represents one item even though it is composed of the same number of letters.
Information remains in the STM only as long as it is attended to, for example by
rehearsal. This rehearsal can be imagining an action, or by sub-verbal repetition.
If attention is directed elsewhere information in the STM is lost within 30 seconds.
STM is very important when learning motor skills. You need to be able to recall
information about a performance so that you can compare it to previous
performances.
Hence all the information involved in the learning and performing of skills is
compared to existing information via the STM and for this reason it is sometimes
called the working memory. The Detection, Comparison and Recognition process
occurs within the STM.
STM
• STM is important for the coach. The limited capacity of
the STM means that instructions to learners should be:
– Brief.
– To the point.
– Given when learner is paying attention.
• Otherwise the information will be lost from the STM
before the learner can use it. selective attention is
really just another form of rehearsal, in that it
lengthens the time that a stimulus remains in the STM.
In other words selective attention keeps the
information alive in STM. This is the idea of
maintenance.
LTM
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
All information that enters the STM is rehearsed and is stored. All information in
the STM is either stored in the LTM or lost.
The LTM is therefore a store of well-learned past experiences. It has almost
limitless capacity and items may be stored for dozens of years.
The information held in the LTM is used to compare against new experiences. The
LTM also stores responses used in these different situations. Using LTM involves
the process of retrieval of information and passing it into the STM.
Retention and retrieval of information from LTM is influenced by:
Rehearsal - the more a memory is rehearsed, the more likely it is that it will be
remembered.
Meaningfulness – the more meaningful a memory is, the more likely it is to be
remembered.
Speed of learning – the quicker a process is learned, the more likely it is to be
remembered.
Over-learning – the more a skill is practiced, even when perfected, the better it
will be remembered.
Retrieval of information
• Recognition
– A cue or a signal – seeing something familiar
• Recall
– Actively search memory stores for a learned skill
• Relearning
– Easier to learn second time round
• Imagery
To ensure that important information stays in the LTM, it is important
to:
• Repeat
• Associate (link) information
• Make information meaningful
• Make stimuli recognisable
• STM and LTM work together. When a batsman is facing
the bowler, they know by experience (LTM) that they
must focus on the ball (STM). Once the ball leaves the
bowlers hand (STM) the batsman will have experience
of the flight of the ball (LTM) to be able to predict the
flight of the ball. they can then refer to his store of
information (LTM) as to how that ball might bounce.
They may then select an appropriate response (LTM)
about what stroke to play. In other words the batsman
is continuously moving from using information from his
sensors to information that has been stored so that he
can play the correct stroke.
• The better the player the quicker they are able to
process the information and the greater the capacity
(or the less that is cluttered up!) to deal with it.
Memory is Essential
Reception (input)
Storage (central process)
Sensory information:
Selected sensory information
retained:
1) selective attention
2) encoding
1) STM
2) LTM
Retrieval (output)
Stored information is recovered and
used:
1) recognition
2) recall
3) practice
• Skill acquisition emphasises that motor skills are to a
large part cognitive in nature. It follows therefore, that
in the same way a person can logically think through an
intellectual problem, so they can also think through a
sequence of movements without physically moving.
• Mental rehearsal is far easier for closed skills. In open
skills, part of the plan of action must also include
knowledge about the relevant environmental cues with
which the movements must be matched.
• Mental rehearsal is defined as the improvement in
performance that results from an individual either
thinking about a skill, or watching someone else
perform it (live or recorded), or even reading or
listening to instructions.
Uses of mental rehearsal
• Mental rehearsal has an important role in the
acquiring of skill.
• Mental rehearsal (sometimes called imagery) is
often used by elite performers in controlling their
arousal.
• Mental rehearsal can be used to practice when
the performer is unable to undertake physical
practice due to physical fatigue or being injured.
• Mental practice can be used to reduce
psychological refractory period.
• Imagery can be used to help develop confidence.
Reaction time
• Reaction time is the speed at which we are able to process
information and make decisions
• Being able to respond quickly is important to success in
many sporting situations
• A stimulus activates a particular sensory system
• The stimulus travels from the sensory system to the brain
• The brain (central mechanism) processes the stimulus and
decides on a course of action
• The appropriate command is sent from the brain to the
relevant muscles (effectors) to carry out the action
Reaction time
• THE TIME BETWEEN THE ONSET OF THE
STIMULUS AND THE START OF THE
MOVEMENT IN RESPONSE TO IT
• e.g. The time between when a sprinter hears
the starting gun and starts to move
Movement time
• THE TIME TAKEN FROM STARTING THE
MOVEMENT TO COMPLETING IT
• e.g. The time from when a sprinter first
presses on their blocks to when they cross the
finish line
Response time
• THE TIME FROM THE ONSET OF A STIMULUS
TO THE COMPLETION OF THE MOVEMENT
• e.g. The time from the sprinter hearing the
stimulus of the gun to finishing the race
RESPONSE TIME = REACTION TIME + MOVEMENT TIME
Factors that affect reaction time
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AGE: reaction time gets quicker until approx. age 20, then reactions get slower as
you get older
GENDER: males generally have faster reaction times
LIMB USED: the further information has to travel in the nervous system the slower
the reactions. ie. The reaction of feet is slower than hands
ALERTNESS/ AROUSAL/ MOTIVATION: levels of these affect reaction time.
Optimum levels are needed to react quickly
BODY TEMPERATURE: when cold reactions are slower. Performing a ‘warm up’
prepares athletes to react quickly
SENSORY SYSTEM RECEIVING THE STIMULUS: reaction time varies depending on
the sense being used
A WARNING: reactions are quicker when expecting a stimulus eg. In the sprint
start knows that after hearing the word ‘set’ the gun will go off
STIMULUS INTENSITY: loud sounds or bright colours stimulate quicker reactions
eg. Use of a starting pistol or a brightly coloured ball in beach volleyball
LIKELIHOOD: if there is a good chance of the stimulus occurring reactions will be
quicker than to a stimulus that rarely occurs
Simple reaction time
• If an athlete only has to respond to one
stimulus this is termed ‘ simple reaction time’
• e.g. At the start of a race a swimmer only
listens for the sound of the starting gun. The
only decision to be made is when to start to
move
Choice reaction time
• In many sporting situations performers are
faced with more than one stimulus and more
than one possible response, This is ‘choice
reaction time’
• e.g. In badminton an athlete is faced with
many stimuli – position of opponent, speed,
direction, trajectory of the shuttlecock – and
may have to choose between several possible
shots in response
Hick’s law
• Choice reaction time increases linearly as the
number of stimulus/ choice alternatives
increases
• This can be used to slow reactions from
opponents
• e.g. In football a defender will respond more
slowly if several attackers are approaching the
goal area than if there is only the one player
with the ball
Improving reaction time
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
PRACTICE – enables performers to improve cue recognition. With practice the response can
become automatic
MENTAL REHEARSAL –ensures attention to the correct cues and response to the correct stimuli. It
activates the neuro-muscular system like physical training and affects arousal levels
EXPERIENCE – enhances the performer’s awareness of the probability of particular stimuli
occurring
STIMULUS-RESPONSE COMPATIBILITY – the more natural or usual the response the quicker the
reaction time. Coaches try to create a strong stimulus-response bond (S-R)
CONCENTRATION/ SELECTIVE ATTENTION – focussing on only relevant information improves
reaction time
CUE DETECTION – analysing an opponent’s play enables an athlete to anticipate what they are
going to do and react more quickly to the move
PHYSICAL FITNESS – the fitter you are the quicker you will be
AROUSAL/ MOTIVATION – optimum levels are needed to react quickly
WARM UP –ensures physical and mental preparation
ANTICIPATION – SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL
SPATIAL ANTICIPATION – predicting what will happen
TEMPORAL –predicting when it will happen
Psychological refractory period
• Anticipation can speed up reactions but if we anticipate incorrectly
reaction times can be slowed down.
• If we detect a stimulus and are processing that information when a
second stimulus occurs we are unable to process the second
stimulus until we have finished processing the first one, making our
reaction times longer
• This extra reaction time is known as the ‘psychological refractory
period’ (PRP)
• e.g. By using a dummy in football or a feint dodge in netball we can
make defenders move in one direction while we go the other
• DECEPTION MAKES USE OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY
PERIOD
• Psychologists explain this by the ‘single-channel hypothesis’ – we
have a single channel for processing information and can only
process one piece of information at a time