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Background Information
The Upper Strata
Consulars
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Qualifications: usually came from noble families
Senators who had achieved the office of consul.
Respected due to experience and authority
Senators
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Qualifications: property qualification of one million sesterces
Duties: Served the emperor in offices throughout the empire
Most gained their wealth from large estates
Position was hereditary
Equestrians
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Qualifications: property qualification of 400,000 sesterces.
Duties: Served the emperor as procurators, praetorian prefects, commandors of fire service and
in charge of grain supply
also referred to as knights
gained wealth from public office, trade and banking
Position was NOT Hereditary.
Outnumbered senators; at the time of Augustus there were 20000 but numbers increased in the
imperial period as provincials were admitted.
Freedmen
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Qualifications: rich freedmen gave donations to help them ‘get on’ in society
Duties: served in the imperial court
Slaves who had been set free
Gained their wealth from trade, banking, manufacturing and land ownership
Were able to marry free-born children but were never allowed to enter the senatorial order.
Some were allowed to be become members of the equestrian order.
Imperial Cult
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Always a connection between religion and politics
East – political rulers were through of as descendants from god – initially thought off as
questionable by Romans, however upon invasion of east, idea infiltrated society
Priests worshipped the ruler as paterfamilias of the state and celebrated his genius
Augustus exploited this principal for political reasons, building the temple Divus Julius to
worship the ancestor Julius Caesar.
Most emperors were deified after they died
Written and Archaeological evidence
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Res Gestae Divi Augustus: a primary source written at the time by Augustus to justify his actions
and to ensure the Roman people understood the image that he had created.
Tacitus’ Annals: senator and historian
o End of the first century AD
Suetonius: Roman biographer
o Second century AD
Cassius Dio: Historian from eastern part of Roman empire
o Lare second and early third century AD
o Much is lost, however text covering 68BC to 47AD has survived
Velleius Paterculus: wrote history of Rome most of which does not survive, friend of Tacitus
Archaeological sources
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Large areas of the city
Statutary and portraits
Coins
Inscriptions
The Ara Pacis (alter of peace)
Octavian (Augustus)
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Great nephew to Juilus Caesar.
On arrival in Rome after Caesar’s death he found the Mark antony had taken control of Caesars
property – Augustus defeated Antony at a war with his private army at mutina in 43BC.
Antony fled to Lepidus – governor of Gaul and both planned civil war in Rome to regain power.
Upon meeting with Augustus, a legally sanctioned alliance was formed called a triumvirate.
Roman empire was divided into three parts
o Octavian – Italy, Africa, sicily and Sardinia
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o Lepidus controlled Narbonese Gaul and spain
o Antony gained Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul.
In 42BC Brutus and Cassius who murdered Caesar were killed and the empire was further
divided
40BC Antony married Octavia – sister to Augustus – to strengthen alliance
o Antony then began relationship with Cleopatra
In 36 BC Lepidus was eliminated from the triumvirate due to his alliances with Sextus Pompey
Antoney married and had children with Cleopatra while married to Octavia
Style himself as eastern king
Antony claimed his son as heir to Egypt
o Augustus viewed this threat to his empire and publicly published Antony’s will naming
parts of the Roman Empire as Egyptian land, causing anger amongst Roman citizens
o When Antony renounced his marriage to Octavia the senate tripped him of his powers
and declared war against Cleopatra.
o Their forces were defeated and antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.
The Government
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Until Caesar the Romans had a republic
o
This was governed by:
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The people: Roman citizens - elected magistrates who met in assemblies
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Magistrates carried out specific duties
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Senate: ex-magistrates and aristocrats – 900ppl. – supposedly an advisory body
however became the most powerfull institution. A decree of the senate
‘Senatus consultum’ was framed as advice but accepted as law. Senior members
were known as princeps senates or first statesmen.
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Tribune of the people represented the needs of ordinary plebeians against autocratic power of
consuls – THIS DID NOT EXIST AFTER THE REPUBLIC – DURING THE EMPIRE
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Res Gestae: “In my sixth and seventh consulships, after I had extinguished civil wars, and at a
time when with universal consent I was in complete control of Affairs, I transferred the republic
from my power, to the dominion of the senate and people of Rome.”
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title of Augutsus bore religious overtones – gratitude as saviour of the state
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senate voted powers for him over spain Gaul and Syria and he continued to control Egypt.
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The title Imperium was given to him following the battles at Mutina
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This is the only power he maintained as he resigned his consulship under pressures of
Nobles. The Senate however, allowed him compensatory powers.
o
This meant pro-consuls were subject to his orders
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This power meant Augustus could interfere with any province anywhere in the Roman
world
Powers of Augustus
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22BC senate offers more powers, augustus denies
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Grain shortage makes citizens believe only augustus could save them, and offered dictatorship
and consulship for life – THIS IS GAIUS’ FLAW – EMPOROR MAINTAINS POWER FOR LIFE
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Augustus refuses powers but successfully alleviates shortage
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In Res Gestae, augustus admits to refusing these powers however makes no mention of the
power of imperium that he accepted
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28BC accepted role of princeps senates – first to speak in senate – changed this to princeps
civitatis – first citizen
o
With this power he could recommend equstrians to the senate and therefore
manipulate the composition of the senate to his advantage
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12BC took office of pontifex maximus after death of Lepidus
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2BC – augustus accepts role as Pater Patriae (father of his country)
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Everything was about public image
o
PRIMA PORTA STATUE
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Shows military image
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Wearing footwear associated with heros and gods
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Augustus is presented as a military figure
Religious Reforms of Augustus
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Augustus attempted to revive religion after success at Actium by rebuilding shrines cults etc.
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Godlike worship of augustus was not allowed in Rome but it was in the provinces, which
augustus encouraged.
Social Values and Reforms
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Aimed overall to restore traditional values to Rome and the empire.
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Attempted to legislate on morality
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Encouraged marriage and reproduction particularly in upper classes
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Secular games illustrated restoration of religion and traditional values within Rome
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Moral and social legislation was not popular
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Was making a lax in morals answerable to the state
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Wanted respect for citizenship and limited number of freedmen and barred them from holding
public office or serving in the legions
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Julia – only daughter – married initially to cousin Marcellus, however upon death married
Agrippa and bore him 5 children
o
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Upon Agrippa’s death – Julia was married to Tiberius who was forced to divorce
Vespania
Julia was angry with marriage as she believed she married below rank – committed adultery –
and was banished – her mother scribonia went into exhile with her daughter
Livia
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Symbol of womanhood – claimed as imperial mother
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38BC married augustus while scribonia was pregnant
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35BC was granted sacrosanctity – first time this was given to a women who was not a vestal
virgin
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Exempted from lex voconia which limited what women could inherit
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Only held one child by augustus which died.
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After the death of Augustus in AD14, Livia was given the title of Julia Augusta and adopted into
the Julian family
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Died in 29AD
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Deified by Claudius in AD42
Religion
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Associated with Juno, wife of Jupiter
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Represented traditional childbearing roles of women
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Gave religious justification for augustan ideals
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Honoured child-cirth and marriage
Army
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Active role in advising Augustus
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Received entreaties and acted on behalf of foreign embassies and cities
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Siginifican influence over people of the imperial family
The Principate
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Republic – not normal to inherit political positions
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Ademate that only one of Julian Bloodline would succeed him however all favoured heirs were
killed
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Only child was a daughter – two stepsons by Livia – Drusus and Tiberius
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Augustus described his regime as the Principate “rule by first citizen”
The Senate
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Dio Cassius and Tacitus - senate no longer the major ruling party
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Senate maintained legal power to prevent Augustus from maintaining this power
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Augustus always controlled real power of the Army
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By the end of Augustus the senate followed orders – Tiberius attempted to rectify however
failed
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Gaius treated the senate with disdain
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The senate had no respect for Claudius as it had no say in his accession
Augustus
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Tried to retore prestigue
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Drastically reduced the number of senators
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Intitiall the qualifications to be senator were inheritance, however augutsus changed this to land
ownership worth 1million sesterces
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It is said he financially assisted members of the equestrian class who he deemed appropriate to
join the senate (i.e MANIPULATED COMPOSITION OF SENATE)
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Princeps senatas – allowed to speak first
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Created committee called consilium who decided upon the agenda for the senate
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Senatorial court conducted trials for people of high rank – extorsion – adultery and treason.
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Peacfull provinces controlled by senate
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Senate maintained control of the public treasury of Rome
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Res Gestae implies treasury was often empty and that Augustus regularly made contributions
Tiberius
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Attempted to restore the senate to it’s traditional rights by consulting ti on everything
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Treated with ultimate respect implied by sutonius
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Abolished consilium of augustus and established a council of his friends and those nominated by
the senate to advise him
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Expanded the judicial role of the senate making it responsible for trying provincial officials
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Also assisted in individuals meeting financial qualification to reach the senate
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Suetonius claims Tiberius was offered titles and honours which he refused
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Wanted the senate to be independent and encouraged it to ake part in debate senate showed
itself to be inadequate (Tacitus)
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Senate took a greater role in religious affairs electing new preists and Vestal Virgins.
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Dio claims Tiberius frustration with the senate grew as his reign continued.
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Commented that senate were “men fit to be slaves” tacitus
Gaius
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Gaius appeared before the senate where it “immediately and unanimously conferred absolute
power upon him” suetonius
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Given many titles and honours
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“the balance the had been built up by augustus and maintained by Tiberius was destroyed in
one blow” Atiquity
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tiberius’ will was declared null and void and gaius had the right to do what he thought was right
for the state.
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Initially treated senate with respect
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Abolished maiestas
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Recalled exiled senators
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Concerned for the comfort of his senators
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After illness in 37AD behaviour changed
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“gaius like to humiliate senators by making them run beside his chariot dressed in their togas”
suetonius
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AD38 renewed the laws of maiestas
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Removed senates rights to mint coins
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Executed senators who tried to give him advise
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Senate became sycophantic and granted more honours as they feared for their lives
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Senate gave excessive powers and spent vast sums trying to entertain him
Claudius
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41AD Claudius was made emperor by praetorian guard while senate discussed returning to
republic
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“senate wanted to regain former prestige” Josephus
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41AD declared Claudius a public enemy
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Claudius granted 15000 sesterces to every guardsman forcing the senate to confer powers of
princeps upon him
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Recalled exiles – repealed Gaius’ laws and granted consulships to those with republican
sympathies
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Attempted to increase prestige of senate
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Issues of foreign policy and provinces were openly discussed
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More senatus consulta were passed in Claudius’ reign than any other
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Maintained an efficient administration with senate, having advisors sit with him, which had not
been done since Tiberius
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Senate remained hostile possibly because of his extensive formalised use of freedmen such as
Pallas, Narcissus and Polybius
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Kept many routine administrative details to himself so that senate believed they were ignorant
of political direction
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Abolished maiestas then reintroduced them
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It has been claimed that during his reign, 35 senators and 300 equestrians were killed
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Introduced those from other provinces into the senate which the senate disliked
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Accepted all honours given except “father of country” which he accepted later
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Claudius relationship with praetorians intimidated senate and increased resentment
Nero
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Influenced by seneca and burrus – relations with the senate were at first good
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Promised to reverse all unpopular measures hat Claudius introduced
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Said he would model leadership on augustus
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Initially rejected offers of statues and titles
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Senate able to debate freely (tacitus)
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Coins issued on authority of senate
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After death of aggrippina, Burrus and the retirement of seneca, relations with the senate
deteriorated
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Neglected imperial duties in favour of the arts
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Treason trials revived by praetorian prefect
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“Would one day wipe out the entire senatorial order” Suetonius said by Nero
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snetae became sycophantic
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many senators and wealthy men murdered
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68AD senate declares Nero a public enemy
The Army
“if one looks at the Roman military system, one will recognise that the possession of a large empire has
come into their hands as the prize of their valour, not as a gift of fortune.” Josephus
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Important part of the image of princeps to be seen as a significant and efficient military figure
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Therefore military success of princeps a result of acknowledgement of this significance
of the army
When rulers ignored the power of the army, they risked being overthrown
Augustus
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Became a permanently organised professional army
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Under the republic the army was controlled by generals whom they relied on for pay and
rewards meaning generals often used the army for their own political ends
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Augustus aimed to put the army under his command and separate political roles from military
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Soldiers now received pay from the emperor
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Weakened the patron client relationship that existed between generals and soldiers
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Suetonius claims this to be the main aim behind the reform (Augustus maintaining absolute
control over the army)
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AD took title imperator emphasizing importance of military leadership– did this carry through to
other princeps?
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Spain Syria and Gaul came under roman control under Augustus
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Faaflaub states implies that this supreme command of armed forces was new under Augustus
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Standardised pay and allowances for the entire army
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As a result conscription was no longer necessary
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However conscription was reintroduced for a short time after revolts
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Legions were sons of veterans
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Soldiers forbid to marry during their term
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Children of men who ignored this law were regarded as illegitimate
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Sons enlisted to gain citizenship
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Auxiliary cohorts supplying specialist forces and cavalry were introduced under Augustus
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Strongly encouraged military service for senators and senatorial aspirants (Suetonius)
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Reduced number of legions illustrating to the Romans that he had brought peace
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The control and patronage of the army was dominated by augustus (antiquity)
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Created loyalty through donatives and by allowing centurions to enter equestrian class
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Condemned haste and recklessness in his military commanders (Suetonius)
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People who gained the top military positions were members of the imperial family or those who
owed their life to Augustus (established loyalty)
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“put the army on stable footing and tried to eliminate the misuse of the army that had occurred
at the end of the republic”.....”cared for the social and material needs of the soldiers” antiquity.
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This would have established a loyal relationship between the army and the newly established
role of princeps. Concentrated power over the army to the princeps
Tiberius
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Long military career before he became ruler
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Armies of Germany and Pannonia mutinied as they had not received all promised donatives
from Augustus.
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Drusus – Pannonia
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Germannicuss to Germany
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Previous career had established a strong sense of loyalty with the army and he had little
problems following these revolts
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Not impressed with the quality of Romans that were enlisting stating that they were “destitute
and lazy” (Tacitus)
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Army played key role in downfall of Sejanus, replacing Sejanus’ praetorians
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Delegated military campaigns to generals
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Provided reliable military leadership and cultivated ties with the legions
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Competence in contrast with his successors who “suffered from a lack of confidence in
themselves and suspicion of military talent in others” (griffin, contemporary??)
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Maintained augustus’ strong ties with army, acknowledging their worth. Was able to establish
these ties due to his previous long and successful career in the military
Gaius
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Popular as he was the son of Germanicus
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Grown up in military camps
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“Caligula’s accession seemed to the Roman people – one might almost say – to the whole world
– like a dream come true” Suetonius
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Reduced retirement bonuses for soldiers and discharged older centurions
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Attempted to create a military image in Gaul although he did not fight any battles
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AD 39 commander and Imperial family formed a plot to overthrow Gaius however this was
quickly suppressed by Gaius.
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Took advantage of initially favourable position when he, similarly to Nero, underestimated the
worth of the army
Caludius
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Praetorians chose Claudius rather than senate and therefore he lacked the support of a
powerful group
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Realised the importance of military image despite his lack of military experience
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Gained personal relationship with Army by personally leading troops into Britain in AD43 (Dio
Cassius)
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Held a triumph on his return and coinage was marked with the name imperator – connection
Gaius to Augustus’ reign.
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Rewarded soldiers with titles and grants of citizenship
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Began the practice of awarding certificates for honourable discharge
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Army remained well disciplined and content throughout his reign as he chose capable men as
generals
Nero
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13 imperial salutations???
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“little concern for the soldiers allowing their pay and rewards to fall into arrears” Antiquity
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Made no attempt to build a military image or to form ties and extravagant indulgence in the arts
angered army
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Serious mistakes in leaders, had most successful military generals killed – paranoia?? Fear of
revolt??? As said by griffin he “suffered from a lack of confidence in themselves and suspicion of
military talent of others” eg Corbulo who served well in the east however was killed when he
was sent to Germany
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Increasing power of freedmen meant many groups became disillusioned
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Provincial governors upset with heavy taxes to fund extravagance
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Army played a key role in the downfall of Nero by removing all support aswell as Galba’s revolt
in spain. This, along with the Praetorian guards lack of support, forced nero to commit suicide
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“nero was unable to shouilder the burden of expected military glory” Griffin
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Overall he showed a paranoia towards the possible revolts and damaged the relationship
between the princeps and the army as he underestimated their worth
Imperial Policy
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Includes the treatment of provinces and frontiers
o
Provinces = areas conquered and settled by the empire
o
Frontier = imperial boundaries
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Adopted various means to control the empire such as military conquest; diplomacy; buffer
zones of client states; the traditional method of divide and rule
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Areas of particular concern are Rhine-Danube frontier and Syria Asia minor area that bordered
the Parthian empire
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“Augustus attempted to conquer the whole world, or at least create the impression that he had”
(antiquity)
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Tiberius understood Augustan policies of securing the frontiers and improving the government
of the provinces
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Gaius reversed Augustan policies in the east particularly in Parthia and Judea, weakening Rome’s
position – however wise decision over client kings
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Claudius conquered Brittain, taking Augustus’ image of a great conqueror
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Nero maintained Roman frontiers but failed to govern provinces
Augustus
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Praised for bringing glory to rome
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Promoted images of himself as world conqueror (prima porta statue)
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Allowed allied nations to manage their affairs according to their ancestry
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Allowed some areas to govern themselves, some he governed as Rome
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Client kings were left in control of their own provinces
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To ensure loyalty, family members were kept hostage in Rome
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If unstable, client states became provinces of rome
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Client kingdoms acted as buffer zones against possibly hostile territory
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Wanted to maintain defensible frontiers
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25AD established Juda as client kind of Mauretania
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Senatorial and imperial provinces
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o
27BC provinces divided into senatorial and imperial units of administration
o
“he handed over the weaker provinces to the senate, and kept the stronger ones under
his authority” Dio Cassius
o
established client kingdom of Judea under Herod the great which ater his death became
an imperial province
pursued and expansionist policy but towards the end of his reign had to settle with a defensive
policy
Tiberius
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carefully followed augustan advice to avoid expanding the empire
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provincial government
o
lengthened the term of provincial governors –wanted provinces to be governed by ‘men
of merit’ (antiquity)
o
centralised the administration – allowed some governors to rule from Rome
o
rome was dependant on provinces for supplies in particular grain (tacitus)
o
“he wanted his sheep shorn not flayed” (tacitus)
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Rhine frontier maintained
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Danube – made Macedonia and Achaea imperial provinces
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Germanicus settled issue of kingship in the east with a treaty with parthia.
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Revolts in Africa for 7years which made Tiberius annoyed at senat (senatorial province) Africa
was important supply of grain
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Revolts in Gaul
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Marked by tranquillity 3 minor disturbances
Gaius
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Inconsistent in policies
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Rhine – went to secure support of army however it is suggested that he suspected Lepidus of
conspiring against him with his two sisters
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Brittain – planned to invade Brittain but it is suggested troops refused – gaius still announced
annexation of Brittain
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Africa – ordered ptolomy, client king of Mauetania to commit suicide in preparation for its
ennaxation
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East – reversed augustan policy of Religious toleranced and ordered jews to erect a statue of
him In the temple at Jerusalem causing longterm unrest
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Barrett claims that Gaius “seems to have been concerned primarily with preserving stability in
the eastern part of the empire, rather than extending the Roman imperium”.
Claudius
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Remembered as ‘extender of the empire’ (antiquity)
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New territories added (Brittain)
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5 new provinces
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responsible for assimilation of provinces
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Rhine-Danube
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o
Maintained Tiberius defensive and diplomatic policy
o
Moved frontier to Rhine River
o
Achaea and Macedonia returned to control of the senate
Brittain
o
Claudius overcame the troop’s reluctance which Gaius was unable to do
o
“”continued success of Roman troops was largely due to the failure of the British tribes
to unite in their opposition” (Dennet)
o
Annexed Brittain in AD43. keen to enhance military image and popularity with army and
to gain the riches of Brittain
o
Trade and business activity was established
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o
AD54 Romans controlled southern England
o
Conquest extended empire and was commemorated on coins, architecture and
literature
Senatorial and imperial provinces
o
Restored provinces of Macedonia and achaea
o
Mauretania organised into two imperial provinces
o
Brittain, Thrace, Lycia and Judea under Roman control
o
Centralization of power – governed by procurator Augusti who were answerable to
Claudius
The east –
o
Skilfully smoothed anger caused by Gaius by reversing his policies
o
Client kingdom under Herod Aggrippa, after death became Roman province
o
Attempted to mediate between Greeks and Jews
Romanization
o
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Improved infrastructure of empire
Gaul
o
Many provincials granted Latin rights, or, in some cases full roman citizenship
o
Part of push to Romanise empire however caused ‘much alarm’ in some quarters of
Rome
Client Kingdoms:
o
Changed the government of Raetia, Noricum, Mauretania and Thrace from client
kingdoms to provinces
o
Believed direct Roman control was preferable to the system of client kingdoms
IMPACT = EXTENDED ROMAN WAY OF LIFE INTO OTHER PROVINCES AND ROMAN CITIZENSHIP
WAS EXTENDED TO PROVINCIALS
Nero
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Under guidance of Seneca and Burrus, policy toards empire was restained
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Not interested in axpanding only “spending the money derived form it” (suetonius)
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Little interest in prvinces and frontiesr
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Obsession with all things greek and therefore stated greeks should not pay tax
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Employed capable provincial governors
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Later became afraid of military men and made them commit suicide (Dio Cassius)
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According to suetonius nero considered removing troops from brittain
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Boudicca uprise caused by harsh demands of Romans
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Attempted to annex armenia and embarrassingly lost it to parthians (dio cassius)
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AD 64 asia minor under direct roman control
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Governor of gaul attempted to overthrow Nero due to heavy taxes and succeeded with Galba,
the governor of spain.
Praetorian Guard
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Established by Augustus in 27BC
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9 cohorts stationed outside rome – guard city and imperial family
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prefect = highest office of equestrian order
Augustus
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better payed than army
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initially guards were publius Aper and Ostorius Scapula
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later replace with one prefect Valerius Ligur
Tiberius
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15AD Sejanus becomes prefect
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Sejanus gained political manipulation through murder of Aggripina the elder, her husband
drusus, and their sone drusus.
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Treason trials seen as the fault of Sejanus
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Cleverly controlled flow of information from Rome to Tiberius
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Extremely loyal to Tiberius
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Tiberius eventually had sejanus removed and killed
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Macro replaced Sejanus
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Cultivated Gaius
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Tacitus claims macro killed Tiberius in AD 37
Gaius
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Macro helped Gaius gain approval to be princeps befor ebecoming a victim of gaius, ordered to
commit suicide
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Relaced by Marcus Arrecinus Clemens who was involved in plots to kill Gaius
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Tribune of guard Cassius Chaerea who killed Gaius
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Praetorian guard found Claudius and claimed him as emporer
Claudius
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Gratefull for accession and gave generous donations to guard during his reign
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Had gold and silver coins minted depicting him shaking hands with the guardsman
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Executed Gaius’ murderers
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Mesalina and aggrippina maintained control over praetorians. Agripina recommended one of
her clients Afranius Burrus as replacement to guard
Nero
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Burrus promoted interests og Aggrippina by presenting her son to the praetorian guard
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Burrus and Seneca advised Nero and kept check on his behaviour
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Burrus played significant role in forming Nero’s policies
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Accused of plotting against nero but escaped the charge
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Influence declined after Nero’s murder of Aggrippa
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Burrus tried to persuade Nero not to divorce octavia and died that year
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Tigenellus prefect and made extensive use of delatores
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Sabinus took over Tigenellus and ensured the guard withdrew support for Nero and pledged his
support for Galba
Succession
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Augustus set no clear formula regarding the succession of princeps, however he did consciously
arrange and manipulate politics in order to ensure the succession of princeps was honourable
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Under Tiberius the matter of succession “became a cause for public dispute and speculation”
(kousoukis) as all likely heirs had been killed.
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Due to augustus’ failure to create a law regarding succession, Tiberius named 2 heirs, his young
grandson Tiberius Gamellus, and the son of Germanicus, Gaius (Caligula)
o
This left the senate to make the final decision on who would take the throne, eventually
deciding, with the nominations of Macro, the Gaius would take power
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Upon the death of Gaius, the senate were reluctant to promote another princeps and wished to
return to a republic – Caligula however was found and crown princeps by the praetorian guard
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Nero’s accession was the result of the power of manipulation by Agrippina the younger, causing
Claudius to ignore his own son, formally adopting Nero. Agrippina recalled seneca from exhile
who, together with Burrus from the praetorian guard, totored and advised Nero in his rise to
power.