Download and proceed to conquer the entire country. With all that had been

THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
The Hundred Years' War (French: Guerre
de Cent Ans) was a series of separate wars
lasting from 1337 to 1453 between two
royal houses for the French throne, which
was vacant with the extinction of the
senior Capetian line of French kings
The two primary contenders were the House of
Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also
known as the House of Anjou. The House of
Valois claimed the title of King of France, while
the Plantagenets from England claimed to be
Kings of France and England. Plantagenet Kings
were the 12th century rulers of the Kingdom of
England, and had their roots in the French
regions of Anjou and Normandy.
The conflict lasted 116 years but was
punctuated by several periods of
peace, before it finally ended in the
expulsion of the Plantagenets from
France (except the Pale of Calais). The
war was eventually a victory for the
house of Valois, who succeeded in
recovering the Plantagenet gains made
initially and expelling them from the
majority of France by the 1450s.
The war owes its historical significance to a
number of factors. Though primarily a
dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to
ideas of both French and English
nationalism.
Militarily, it saw the introduction of new
weapons and tactics, which eroded the older
system of feudal armies dominated by heavy
cavalry. The first standing armies in Western
Europe since the time of the Western Roman
Empire were introduced for the war, thus
changing the role of the peasantry. For all
this, as well as for its long duration, it is often
viewed as one of the most significant conflicts
in the history of medieval warfare.
Shorn of its Continental possessions,
England was left an island nation, a fact
which profoundly affected its outlook and
development for more than 500 years.
Following a period of civil wars and unrest in
England known as The Anarchy (1135–1154), the
Anglo-Norman dynasty was succeeded by the
Angevin Kings. The King of England directly ruled
more territory on the continent than the King of
France himself. This situation – where the Angevin
kings owed vassalage to a ruler who was de facto
much weaker – was a cause of continual conflict.
This assemblage of lands is sometimes known as
the Angevin Empire.
At its largest extent, the Angevin Empire
consisted of the Kingdom of England, the
Lordship of Ireland, the duchies of
Normandy, Gascony, and Aquitaine (also
called Guyenne) as well as of the Counties
of Anjou, Poitou, Maine, Touraine,
Saintonge, Marche, Périgord, Limousin,
Nantes, and Quercy.
By the early 14th century, many in the
English aristocracy could still remember a
time when their grandparents and greatgrandparents had control over wealthy
continental regions, such as Normandy,
which they also considered their
ancestral homeland, and were motivated
to regain possession of these territories.
The specific events leading up to the war took
place in France, where the unbroken line of the
Direct Capetian firstborn sons had succeeded each
other for centuries. It was the longest continuous
dynasty in medieval Europe. In 1314, the Direct
Capetian, King Philip IV, died, leaving three male
heirs: Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A fourth
child of Phillip IV, Isabella, was married to Edward
II of England, and in 1312 had produced a son,
Edward of Windsor, who was a potential heir to the
thrones of both England (through his father) and
France (through his grandfather).
In 1324, Charles IV of France and his brother-inlaw, Edward II of England fought the short War
of Saint-Sardos in Gascony. The major event of
the war was the brief siege of the English
fortress of La Réole, on the Garonne. The
English forces, led by Edmund of Woodstock,
Earl of Kent, were forced to surrender after a
month of bombardment from the French
cannons, after promised reinforcements never
arrived. The war was a complete failure for
England, and only Bordeaux and a narrow
coastal strip of the once great Duchy of
Aquitaine remained in English hands.
The recovery of these lost lands became a
major focus of English diplomacy. The war also
galvanised opposition to Edward II among the
English nobility and led to his being deposed
from the throne in 1327, in favour of his young
son, Edward of Windsor, who thus became
Edward III. Charles IV died in 1328, leaving only
a daughter, and an unborn infant who would
prove to be a girl. The senior line of the
Capetian dynasty thus ended, creating a crisis
over the French succession.
Meanwhile in England, the young Edward
of Windsor had become King Edward III of
England in 1327. Being also the nephew of
Charles IV of France, Edward was Charles'
closest living male relative, and the only
surviving male descendent of Philip IV. By
the English interpretation of feudal law,
this made Edward III the legitimate heir to
the throne of France.
Open hostilities broke out as French ships began
scouting coastal settlements on the English Channel
and in 1337 Philip reclaimed the Gascon fief, citing
feudal law and saying that Edward had broken his
oath (a felony) by not attending to the needs and
demands of his lord. Edward III responded by saying
he was in fact the rightful heir to the French throne,
and on All Saints' Day, Henry Burghersh, Bishop of
Lincoln, arrived in Paris with the defiance of the king
of England. War had been declared.
In the early years of the war, Edward III allied
with the nobles of the Low Countries and the
burghers of Flanders. At sea, France enjoyed
supremacy for some time, through the use of
Genoese ships and crews. Several towns on the
English coast were sacked, some repeatedly. This
caused fear and disruption along the English
coast. There was a constant fear during this part
of the war that the French would invade. France's
sea power led to economic disruptions in England
as it cut down on the wool trade to Flanders and
the wine trade from Gascony.
Flanders had grown to be the industrial
center of northern Europe and had
become extremely wealthy through its
cloth manufacture. It could not produce
enough wool to satisfy its market and
imported fine fleece from England.
England depended upon this trade for its
foreign exchange. During the 1200's, the
upper-class English had adopted Norman
fashions and switched from beer to wine.
The problem was that England could not grow
grapes to produce the wine that many of the
English now favored and had to import it. A
triangular trade arose in which English fleece
was exchanged for Flemish cloth, which was
then taken to southern France and exchanged
for wine, which was then shipped into England
and Ireland, primarily through the ports of
Dublin, Bristol, and London.
In 1340, while attempting to hinder the English army from
landing, the French fleet was almost completely destroyed in
the Battle of Sluys. After this, England was able to dominate
the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French
invasions. War broke out in earnest. The French had
assembled a great fleet to support an army with which they
intended to crush all resistance in Flanders. When the ships
had anchored in a dense pack at Sluys in modern Netherlands,
the English attacked and destroyed it with fire ships and
victory in a battle fought across the anchored ships, almost
like a land battle on a wooden battlefield. The English now
had control of the Channel and North Sea. They were safe
from French invasion, could attack France at will, and could
expect that the war would be fought on French soil and thus
at French expense.
In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion
across the Channel, landing in the Cotentin. The
English army captured Caen in just one day,
surprising the French who had expected the city
to hold out much longer. Philip gathered a large
army to oppose him, and Edward chose to march
northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as
he went, rather than attempting to take and hold
territory.
Finding
himself
unable
to
outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his
forces for battle, and Philip's army attacked.
Edward invaded northern France in 1345.
The English were finally pinned against the coast
by a much superior French army at a place called
Crecy (pronounced "cressie"). Edward's army
was a combined force: archers, pikemen, light
infantry, and cavalry; the French, by contrast,
clung to their old-fashioned feudal cavalry. The
English had archers using the longbow, a
weapon with great penetrating power that could
sometimes kill armoured knights, and often the
horses on which they rode. The battle was a
disaster for the French.
Edward proceeded north unopposed and
besieged the city of Calais on the English
Channel, capturing it in 1347. Edward III
then besieged Calais. After a year, the
inhabitants were starving - but under
medieval tradition, they would expect to
be killed if the attackers succeeded,
because they had fought back. Six leading
citizens offered their own lives if Edward III
would spare the rest of the townsfolk.
The citizens of Calais were permitted to leave
their town without further bloodshed; their
homes were given to new English settlers,
who made Calais into a fortified English
stronghold - a base for military expeditions
into France and the near-Continent for the
next two centuries. This became an important
strategic asset for the English.
In 1348, the Black Death began to ravage
Europe. In 1356, after it had passed and
England was able to recover financially,
Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of
Wales, known as the Black Prince, invaded
France from Gascony, winning a great victory
in the Battle of Poitiers, where the English
archers repeated the tactics used at Crécy.
The French countryside at this point began
to fall into complete chaos. Brigandage, the
actions of the professional soldiery when
fighting was at low ebb, was rampant. In
1358, the peasants rose in rebellion in what
was called the Jacquerie. Edward invaded
France, for the third and last time, hoping to
capitalise on the discontent and seize the
throne, but although no French army stood
against him in the field, he was unable to
take Paris or Rheims from the Dauphin, later
King Charles V.
The final phase of warmaking that
engulfed France between 1415 and 1435
is the most famous phase of the Hundred
Years' War. Plans had been laid for the
declaration of war since the rise to the
throne of Henry IV, in 1399. However, it
was his son, Henry V, who was finally
given the opportunity. In 1414, Henry
turned down an Armagnac offer to restore
the Brétigny frontiers in return for his
support. Instead, he demanded a return to
the territorial status during the reign of
Henry II.
In August 1415, he landed with an army at Harfleur
and took it. Although tempted to march on Paris
directly, he elected to make a raiding expedition
across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a
campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself
outmanoeuvred and low on supplies, and had to
make a stand against a much larger French army at
the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. In spite
of his disadvantages, his victory was near-total; the
French defeat was catastrophic, with the loss of many
of the Armagnac leaders.
Henry took much of Normandy, including
Caen in 1417 and Rouen on January 19, 1419,
making Normandy English for the first time in
two centuries. He made formal alliance with
the Duchy of Burgundy, who had taken Paris,
after the assassination of Duke John the
Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with the
mad king Charles VI, who signed the Treaty of
Troyes, by which Henry would marry Charles'
daughter Catherine and Henry's heirs would
inherit the throne of France.
By 1428, the English were ready to pursue the
war again, laying siege to Orléans. Their force
was insufficient to fully invest the city, but
larger French forces remained passive. In 1429,
Joan of Arc convinced the Dauphin to send her
to the siege, saying she had received visions
from God telling her to drive out the English.
She raised the morale of the local troops and
they attacked the English Redoubts, forcing the
English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the
French took several English strong points on
the Loire.
In 1429, Joan of Arc began her quest to unite the
French behind the future Charles VII and drive
the English out of France. She relieved siege of
Orleans, and led the Dauphin to be crowned at
Rheims in 1429. But Joan was captured by
Burgundian troops and in 1430 and later sold to
the English. and they burnt her as a witch (for
wearing men's clothes), at English-held Rouen in
1431. English Henry VI was crowned king of
France in Paris.
However Joan had inspired a French revival. With a
well-organised disciplined army, the French king
Charles VII now had the war-weary English on the
run. One by one, Charles VII besieged and captured
the remaining English strongholds.
With the capture of Bordeaux (1453), the English
had lost all their French all their French lands except
Calais. That was really the end of the One Hundred
Years war so far as England was concerned , though
a formal treaty to end the war between England and
France was only signed in 1475.
The Hundred Years' War was a time of military
evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure, and
the societal meaning of war all changed, partly in
response to the demands of the war, partly
through advancement in technology, and partly
through lessons that warfare taught.
The war also stimulated nationalistic
sentiment. It devastated France as a land, but
it also awakened French nationalism. The
Hundred Years' War accelerated the process
of transforming France from a feudal
monarchy to a centralised state. The conflict
became one of not just English and French
kings but one between the English and
French peoples. There were constant
rumours in England that the French meant to
invade and destroy the English language.
National feeling emerged out of such rumours
that unified both France and England further.
The Hundred Years War basically confirmed the
fall of the French language in England, which
had served as the language of the ruling classes
and commerce there from the time of the
Norman conquest until 1362.
The most famous weapon of the Hundred
Years’ War was the English longbow of the
yeoman archer: while not a new weapon at
the time, it played a significant role
throughout the war, giving the English
tactical advantage in the many battles and
skirmishes in which they were used.
Self-yew English longbow, 2 m (6 ft 6 in) long.
The consequences of these new weapons meant
that the nobility was no longer the deciding factor
in battle; peasants armed with longbows or
firearms could gain access to the power, rewards,
and prestige once reserved only for knights who
bore arms. By the end of the war, both France and
England were able to raise enough money through
taxation to create standing armies. Standing
armies represented an entirely new form of
power for kings.
The effects of the Hundred Years’ War in
England also raised some questions about the
extent of royal authority. Like the French, the
English experienced a serious rebellion against
the king during a gap in the succession caused
by the death of Edward III when his grandson
had not yet reached maturity. Called the
Peasants' Revolt and also Wat Tyler’s
Rebellion, the 1381 uprising saw some 100,000
peasants march on London to protest the
payment of high war taxes and efforts by the
nobility to reduce English peasants to serfdom.
The mob murdered and burned the houses
of government officials and tax collectors.
The young king-to-be, Richard II, met the
peasants outside his castle, defusing their
violence by promising to meet their
demands. At the same time, agents of the
throne murdered Wat Tyler, a key leader of
the revolt, and Richard II sent the peasants
back to their homes in the countryside. After
they left, however, he reneged on his
promises and kept taxes high.
At the end of the war, England was left an island
nation, except for Calais. Already on the fringe of
Europe, it appeared destined for obscurity. However,
the European discovery of the New World beyond
the western boundary of the Atlantic Ocean in 1492
meant that seafaring nations like England were wellsuited to take advantage of the new opportunities
for trade, commerce and conquest it soon afforded.
The Grand "Invincible" Armada
(1588)
In the late 16th century, Spain was the
major international power and either
ruled, colonized, or exercised influence
over much of the known world. English
'sea-dogs' had been causing a great
deal of damage to Spain's trade in
silver.
Men such as Sir Francis Drake attacked Spanish
shipping off of the West Indies and Spain lost a vast
sum of money when the ships carrying silver sunk
or had their cargo captured by Drake. To the
English, Drake was a hero but to the Spanish he was
nothing more than a pirate who, in their view, was
allowed to do what he did with the full knowledge
of Queen Elizabeth. This the Spanish could not
accept.
Spain controlled what was called the Spanish
Netherlands. This consisted of modern day
Holland and Belgium. In particular, Holland
wanted its independence. They did not like being
made to be Catholic; in fact, Protestant ideas had
taken root in Holland and many of those in
Holland were secret Protestants. If they had
publicly stated their Protestant beliefs, their lives
would have been in danger. Spain used a
religious secret police called the Inquisition to
hunt out Protestants.
However, during Elizabeth's reign, the English
had been helping the Dutch Protestants in
Holland. This greatly angered King Felipe II
(Philip) of Spain. With England under his
control, Felipe could control the English
Channel and his ships could have an easy
passage from Spain to the Spanish
Netherlands. Spanish troops stationed there
could be easily supplied.
Catholic Felipe believed that it was his duty to lead
Protestant England back to the Catholic faith – by
force if necessary. In 1587, Mary Stuart, Queen of
Scots, was executed in England on the orders of
Elizabeth. Mary Stuart, was a Catholic and Felipe II
believed that he had a duty to ensure no more
Catholics were arrested in England and that no
more should be executed. Mary, Queen of the
Scots had also made it clear that if she became
Queen of England, Felipe should inherit the throne
after her death. He managed to get papal approval
for his invasion, and a promise of money to be
delivered after the Spanish had landed in England.
Felipe began preparing his invasion force as
early as 1584. While the "Invincible" Armada
was under construction, the dissembling King
Felipe II was constantly assuring Queen
Elizabeth of his abiding concern for her welfare
and the prosperity of her kingdom. During the
time that this unprecedentedly vast fleet was
being built in the harbours of Spain, everything
was done to conceal the fact from the
knowledge of the English nation.
To accomplish the conquest of England, Felipe planned
a two pronged attack. He would send his "Invincible
Armada" of 125 ships into the English Channel where
it would link up with the Duke of Parma in the Spanish
Netherlands at Calais. The Armada would ferry the
Duke's soldiers across the strait of Dover and these
troops would march on London, seize the Queen, and
proceed to conquer the entire country. With all that
had been going on, it was very difficult for the Spanish
to keep the Armada a secret. In fact, they were keen to
let the English know about the Armada as it was felt
that the English would be terrified at the news of such
a large fleet of naval ships attacking them.
In a bold move, apparently against Queen
Elizabeth's wishes, Sir Francis Drake sailed a small
English fleet to Cadiz, where they surprised a large
number of Spanish warships in the harbour. Drake
burned and sunk around 30 ships and destroying
supplies, delaying the Armada preparations for
nearly a whole year. Although the blow at Cadiz
was more an annoyance than a major setback, the
English took heart from this "singeing of the King
of Spain's beard".
By May 1588, however, the Armada was finally
ready to sail. The fleet numbered over 130 ships,
making it by far the greatest naval fleet of its age.
According to Spanish records, 30,493 men sailed
with the Armada, the vast majority of them
soldiers. The organisation to get the Armada
ready was huge. Cannons, guns, gunpowder,
swords and many other weapons of war were
needed and Spain bought them from whoever
would sell to them.
A closer look, however, reveals that this
"Invincible Armada" was not quite so well armed
as it might seem. Many of the Spanish vessels
were converted merchant ships, better suited to
carrying cargo than engaging in warfare at sea.
They were broad and heavy, and could not
maneuver quickly under sail. This might not at
first glance have seemed a problem to the
Spanish. They did not intend to engage the
English in a sea battle. The ships of the Armada
were primarily troop transport. Their major task
was simply to carry armed men to a designated
landing point and unload them.
The English were not idle while the
Spanish Armada prepared to sail. A
series of signal beacons atop hills
along the English and Welsh coasts
were manned
Robert Dudely, Earl of Leicester, was put
in charge of the land army stationed at
Tilbury, and he organised Queen
Elizabeth's famous visit. Elizabeth coped
with military weakness by fashioning a
valiant image, she arrived on a white
steed, wearing a silver cuirass. The Queen
rode through all the squadrons of her
army attended by Leicester, Essex and
Norreys, then lord marshall, and divers
other great lords.
The queen's public appearance among her troops did much
to boost Elizabeth's prestige.
When the Spanish ships were at last sighted on 19 July
1588, the beacons were lit, speeding the news
throughout the realm. The English ships slipped out of
their harbour at Plymouth and, under cover of
darkness, managed to get behind the Spanish fleet.
The Spanish Armada, under the
command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia,
first sailed in April 1588. It hit a terrible
storm and many ships were damaged.
They had to return to port to get
repaired. The Armada sailed from
Portugal in late May of 1588, up the
Channel in a crescent formation, with the
troop transports in the centre.
It reached the South West coast of England on July
19 and was shortly thereafter challenged by the
English fleet commanded by Lord Howard of
Effingham, Lord High Admiral of England, and Sir
Francis Drake. Each fleet numbered about 60
warships, but the advantage of artillery and
maneuverability was with the English.
Under cover of darkness the English set
fireships adrift, using the tide to carry the
blazing vessels into the massed Spanish fleet.
Although the Spanish were prepared for this
tactic and quickly slipped anchor, there were
some losses and inevitable confusion.
The battle near Plymouth began on 31 July. In
the afternoon the Rosario lost her foremast in a
collision and later the San Salvador caught fire
and exploded. Early in the morning of the 1
August the crippled Rosario was captured by Sir
Francis Drake. At the end of the first day's
fighting, only one ship was sunk. This was Spain's
San Salvador when a tremendous explosion tore
out its stern castle and killed 200 members of the
crew. It was later discovered that a gunner's
carelessness resulted in a spark reaching the
gunpowder in the rear hold.
The badly damaged San Salvador is captured by the
English and towed to Weymouth. The following
morning Francis Drake and the crew of Revenge
captured the crippled Rosario. This included Admiral
Pedro de Valdes and all his crew. Drake also found
55,000 gold ducats on board. That afternoon Medina
Sidonia announced that if any Spanish ship broke
formation the captain would be hanged immediately.
He also told his captains that they must maintain a
tight formation in order to prevent further attacks
from the English ships.
There was a battle near Portland Bill on 2 August.
Sea fights take place off the Needles, as ships
approach The Isle of Wight, where was a battle
on 4 August. That day, a strong wind caused the
Channel to become a lot more rough and the
smaller English ships suffered from this whereas
the Spanish used the wind to move quickly to the
European coastline where they would pick up
Spanish troops ready for the invasion of England.
Then the English saw an opportunity to attack the
Spanish fleet. Sir Francis Drake is given the credit for
what happened next but an Italian called Giambelli
should also receive credit for building the "Hell Burners"
for the English. Late in the evening of the 7 August 1588
the English used eight old ships were loaded up with
anything that could burn well. These floating bombs
were set to drift during the night into the resting
Armada. The Armada was a fully armed fleet. Each ship
was carrying gunpowder and the ships were made of
wood with canvas sails. If they caught fire, each ship
would not have a chance.
As the Armada saw the on fire ships
approaching, each ship of the Armada
attempted to break out of Gravelines to
save itself - in the dark. Only one
Spanish ship was lost but the crescent
shape disappeared and the Armada was
now vulnerable to attack.
With their formation broken, the Spanish ships were
easy targets for the English ships loaded with guns
that could fire very large cannon balls. The Spanish
captains tried to get their ships in close so that their
soldiers could board the English vessels. However,
the English ships were quicker than the Spanish
galleons and were able to keep their distance.
The Armada in battle with the English fleet
The battle off Gravelines was an 8 hour struggle.
The English emerged victorious, although the
Spanish losses were not great; only three ships
were reported sunk, one captured, and four more
ran aground. The Dutch later captured three ships.
But they had stopped the English from attacking
the rest of the Armada and worsening weather
also helped the Armada to escape.
English ships pursuing the Armada, gave up
the chase and returned to English ports 12
August. The Spanish fleet fared disastrously
rounding the coast of Scotland. It was then
that the unpredictable English weather took a
hand in the proceedings. A succession of
storms scattered the Spanish ships, resulting
in heavy losses. To add to their troubles, as
the Armada sailed around the north of
Scotland in mid-Sep, it hit one of the worst
storms in history which damaged many ships.
Those ships that survived the storm,
headed for Ireland. Here they were
convinced they would get help and
supplies. Ireland was still Catholic and the
Catholic Spanish sailors believed that those
with the same religion would help them.
They were wrong. The Armada harboured
in what is now called Armada Bay, south of
Galway. Those sailors who went ashore
were attacked and killed. The Irish, Catholic
or not, still saw the Spanish as invaders.
Following the gales it is reckoned that 5,000 men died,
whether by drowning and starvation or by slaughter at
the hands of English forces after they were driven
ashore in Ireland; only half of the Spanish Armada fleet
returned back home to Spain.
Figures do vary but it is thought that only 67 ships out
of 130 returned to Spain – a loss rate of nearly 50%.
Over 20,000 Spanish sailors and soldiers were killed.
Many in Spain blamed Medina Sidonia but King Felipe II
was not one of these. He blamed its failure on the
weather saying "I sent you out to war with men, not
with the wind and waves".
The victory over the Armada was to make Sir Francis
Drake a very famous man. The victory was even
remembered at Christmas when Elizabeth ordered
that everybody should have goose on Christmas Day
as that was the meal she had eaten on the evening
that she learned that her navy had beaten the
Armada.
In England the victory was greeted as a sign of
divine approval for the Protestant cause. The
storms that scattered the Armada were seen as
intervention by God. Services of thanks were held
throughout the country, and a commemorative
medal struck, with the words, "God blew and they
were scattered" inscribed on it.
In England, the boost to national pride
lasted for years, and Elizabeth's
legend persisted and grew long after
her death.
Portraits of Queen Elizabeth painted soon after the
defeat of the "Invincible" Armada. In the left
background can be seen the English fleet and the
Spanish Armada is on the rocks to the right.
Pearls—symbolic of purity—decorate the queen's
head and gown. Next to her right arm is an imperial
crown, and her right hand rests upon a globe—
specifically, her fingers rest upon the New World.
The Anglo-Spanish war was to all intents a
stalemate, for neither side was able to attack the
other effectively, but even this result showed
that there were limits to Spanish power. On a
one to one basis England was clearly much
weaker than Spain, but Elizabeth had
demonstrated successfully that of all Philip's
contemporaries in Europe she was the most
dangerous enemy.