Download The Expository Composition Developed by Examples

People’s Democratic Republic of Morocco
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Teacher Training School of Constantine
A Distant Course in Writing and Grammar
Prepared by: Mrs. Leila Djouimaa
2013-2014
Content of the course
Part one: Writing
1- General review of the English composition
2- Understanding expository writing
3- Pre-writing: Invention and arrangement
4- The writing process: writing the first draft
5- Re-writing: Structural revision
6- Voice, Tone, and Audience
7- The Expository Composition Developed by Examples
8- The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and
Contrast
9- The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect
10- The Essay Developed by Definition
11- Expository Development by Logical Division
12- The Argumentative Essay
13- Letter Writing (formal and informal letters)
14- The Research Paper
15- Narrative Writing
16- Poetry Writing
17- Short Stories
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Part Two: Grammar
1- General review of “phrase, clause, sentence”
2- Determiners
3- Pronouns
4- Complex tenses: “active”
5- Complex tenses: “passive”
6- Sentence tags
7- Phrasal verbs
8- Verb types and the non- finite verb
9- Catenative verbs
10- Stative verbs
11- Indirect speech
12- Cleft sentences
13- Comment clauses
14- Conditionals
15- Questions, answers, negatives
16- Substitution
17- Ellipsis
18- Modals
19- Semi- modals
20- Adverbs with two forms
21- Intensifiers
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Part One: Writing
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General Review of the English Composition
What is an essay?
Essays are non-fiction compositions that analyse or interpret a
limited topic. An essay offers the writer’s personal view about a topic.
Unlike a journalism article, which objectively reports only who, what,
when, and where, or a lab report which precisely details the results of an
experiment, an essay shows the writer’s personal or subjective
understanding of a topic.
Personal does not mean that an essay is about the writer. It could
be, but more often it is not. Rather, the essay’s personal viewpoint
comes from the writer’s analysis or interpretation of a topic through
thoughts, insights and values.
A successful essay comes about through a process of several
important steps or stages of writing. To use the process to its best
advantage, you should allow yourself as much time as possible to write
an essay. Play with ideas. Explore the possibilities of your topic.
Consider more than one approach to organisation. Finally accept the
necessity and value of revision.
Do not expect to write a successful essay in one draft or even in
one evening. Even the best writers go back to strengthen phrasing,
rearrange ideas, add or delete content, and correct mistakes. Revision
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will improve your final draft and give you the opportunity to learn more
about writing itself.
Purpose:
Every essay should have a purpose: to inform, to entertain, or to
persuade. Sometimes these purposes overlap: you might inform your
readers about local poverty so that you can persuade them to contribute
to a worthy charity. You might write an entertaining essay as an
effective way of imparting information about the problems the
immigrants face. In each case, one purpose dominates: to persuade
readers to make a contribution in the first example and to inform about
the problems facing immigrants in the second.
Audience:
Every essay should be written for a particular audience, the
members of which share certain interests or backgrounds. While it is true
that classroom writing is usually read by the instructor, plan your essay
as though you were writing for some outside audience. For example, the
members of a car club, first- time voters, or a group of tourists.
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Types of essays:
Depending on your topic, your purpose, and your audience, you
might write a narrative, descriptive, argumentative, or expository essay.
A narrative essay tells a story by relating a sequence of events. An
essay on unemployment, written as a narrative, might trace the
chronology of a typical day in the life of a person looking for a job.
A descriptive essay uses details and images to depict a scene, an event,
a person, an object, or an atmosphere. You might write a descriptive
essay recreating the scene in an employment office as people wait in line
for job interviews.
An argumentative essay attempts to persuade a reader to take some
action or to convince a reader to accept your position on a debatable
issue. You might try to persuade your reader to join a demonstration of
unemployed workers or argue against a government jobs program.
An expository essay informs, explains or analyses. Most students’
writing assignments call for expository essays. You might explain the
causes of unemployment in a particular industry, analyse the several
major approaches to lessening the hardships of unemployment from a
historical perspective, or relate the effects of unemployment in your own
life.
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The boundaries between these four types of essays are not rigid. You
might for example use a description or a short narrative in an
argumentative essay. You might supply interesting and useful
information in a narrative. But every essay generally falls into one of the
four categories.
Principles of essay writing:
The principles of paragraph writing also apply to essay writing. Just as a
paragraph has a topic sentence that expresses the main idea, an essay has
a thesis statement that states and narrows the writer’s purpose.
An essay, like a paragraph, should be unified (every part must be clearly
related to the idea expressed in the thesis statement).
An essay should also be coherent ( the thoughts expressed in the
sentences must be connected through the same techniques found in
paragraphs, such as repetition of key words and phrases, the rephrasing
of key ideas, and the use of transitional words and phrases.
Finally, both paragraphs and essays require thorough supporting
explanation and detail to fulfil their purpose.
Within an essay you use the same strategies of paragraph development
that you use when writing individual paragraphs. You develop
paragraphs by examples and details, comparison or contrast, analogy,
classification, cause and effect, definition or process. Within a single
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essay you might use a combination of these patterns because an essay is
composed of several paragraphs.
A typical assigned essay is between 500 and 750 words. No matter how
long an essay may be, it follows a general pattern composed of an
introduction, a discussion and a conclusion.
The introduction presents the thesis statement, usually at the end. The
purpose of the introduction is to arouse a reader’s interest and limit the
territory the essay will cover.
The discussion is made up of several paragraphs, each organised around
a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. The discussion
paragraphs develop the ideas expressed in the thesis statement in a
detailed, thorough manner.
The conclusion offers a restatement of the thesis statement and provides
a sense of completion to the essay.
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Understanding Expository Writing
Expository writing is a mode of writing in which the purpose of
the author is to inform, explain; describe, or define his or her subject to
the reader.
Expository text is meant to ‘expose’ information and is the most
frequently used type of writing by students in colleges and universities.
A well-written exposition remains focused on its topic and
provides facts in order to inform its reader. It should be unbiased,
accurate, and use a scholarly third person tone. The text needs to
encompass all aspects of the subject.
Examples of expository writing can be found in magazine and
newspaper articles, non-fiction books, travel brochures, business reports,
memorandums, professional journal and encyclopedia articles and many
other types of informative writing.
One of the most basic forms of expository writing is the five- paragraph
essay, which features an introduction with a clear thesis statement, three
main body paragraphs and a conclusion.
Types of expository writing:
1- Sequence: This structure is also known as ‘process or collection’
and is a form of expository writing that is used if the author
intends to inform his or her readers by listing the order of steps in
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a process or listing events in chronological order. Examples of
this type of writing are cooking instructions, driving directions
and instructions on performing a task. Key words such as first,
after, next, then, and last usually signal sequential writing.
2- Description: A descriptive essay is a type of expository writing
that enables the reader to feel whatever you are describing. One
should write about the sights, smells, touch, hear; and taste. One
should also think about what makes the place you are describing
important. Where are all the other objects compared to the one
you are describing? What do you want the reader to feel? Is your
essay descriptive enough to allow the reader to create a mental
image in his mind? What does the setting remind you of?
3- Classification: Classification is an organisational strategy in
which authors arrange groups of objects or ideas according to a
common topic in detail. Placing different objects or ideas in
categories is a type of classification.
4- Comparison: A comparative essay shows how two or more
subjects are similar or contrasting. This type of structure is often
used in determining which is the better of two or more choices.
5- Cause and Effect: Cause and effect writing identifies the reason
for something occurring and lists what occurs because of that
reason. This is also known as the analysis essay.
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Pre-writing: Invention and Arrangement
1-Select a subject:
In many cases you will be assigned subjects for your essays. If
the choice is left to you, however, the best procedure is to select a
subject quickly rather than to wait for inspiration. There is no such thing
as a good or bad subject. There are only good and bad treatments of
subjects.
You will write your best essays on subjects you already know something
about, so look first at your own interests and experiences. Your
educational interests, your work, or your leisure activities may suggest a
subject. Think back on recent conversations you had with friends and
family members. Examine your ideas about topics in the news, your
reactions to a book, a movie, or a television show. Explore your
imagination. Make a list of possibilities. If make the list long enough,
you should be able to come across a few subjects that you could develop
into an essay.
2- Narrow the subject to a topic that can be covered in a single
essay:
The first thoughts you have about possible essay subjects will more than
likely be too broad. If you select a subject such as “trends in rock
music”, “train travel”, or “the importance of personal computers”, you
will end up with an uninteresting paper full of general statements. To
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avoid overgeneralizing, you must narrow the subject to a manageable
topic.
Some writers are fearful about narrowing a subject because they believe
that the broader the subject, the more they will find to say about it. But
the opposite is true. A writer can find more informative and interesting
things to say about a narrow subject, such as “the advantages of using a
word processor” than about a general topic such as “the importance of
personal computers”. A narrow subject allows, even forces, a writer to
use specific supporting material.
Example: Suppose you have selected or been assigned the subject
“American lifestyles”.
Obviously the subject is too broad for a short essay. It could be narrowed
to “the fast pace of American life-styles”. But in a short essay, 500 to
750 words, “the fast pace of American lifestyles” as a subject is still too
broad. To include everything that the subject suggests, you would need
to
deal
with
work
schedules,
after
work
activities,
instant
communications, the automobile’s expansion of community boundaries,
the fast-food habit, and many more topics. You could write only one or
two general sentences about each.
Exercise: Narrow each of the following subjects by writing three
progressively more limited topics. For example: Music.
-
Country and western music.
-
Male and female relations in country and western ballads.
-
Attitudes toward women in current country and western ballads.
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1- Football
2- Travel
3- Courage 4- Health 5- Shopping.
3- Use Prewriting exercises to generate ideas:
Before you begin writing an essay, you need to examine what you know
about the subject and explore the possible ways the topic can be
developed. There are two prewriting exercises that can help you in this
process: listing and clustering.
3-a- Listing:
You can help focus your thinking about a topic by making a list of items
related to it. As you develop a list, try to keep a flow of ideas coming.
Do not reject any ideas. Write them all down because one idea, even a
weak one, may lead to another.
Later you can decide which ideas you will expand upon and include in
the essay, but if you edit your list too soon, you may inhibit the flow of
ideas.
Example: For the topic “impatience and restlessness in American life”, a
writer could develop the following list:
- fast food
- horn blowing in traffic- no patience
- people don’t listen in conversations, check watches
- computers- no time to think
- moving at a slow pace considered a crime
- jet planes
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- Romeo and Juliet summary on tv – “boy meets girl boy dies- girl dies”culture in a hurry
- condensed books
- Relationships made to solve problems, quickly dissolved
- math made easy
- quick divorce – no time for reconciliation
- abbreviations in correspondence and announcements
-tv news
- 35 minutes for lunch
- learn while you sleep
- leave jobs easily- no ties
- digest magazines
- conversation- rapid speech- contractions- swallowed syllables
- fall in love quickly
- violence- quick elimination of problems
- don’t know candidates
- calculators- no time to add.
The writer could list these items as they come to his mind. He might
include some of them in the final paper and reject others.
The listing process gives a wealth of ideas to draw from as one begins to
organise and write the final paper.
3-b- Clustering:
Listing ideas is an effective way to generate material, but many writers
prefer clustering because they find it an easier way to see relations
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between ideas. To develop ideas through clustering, write your topic in
the centre of a piece of paper; then as you think of ideas connected with
the topic, arrange them around the edges of the page or in clusters of
similar item.
Blow horn in traffic
violence
Don’t listen to others
digest magazines
Learn
while you sleep
Condensed books
Impatience and
restlessness
Relationships don’t last
fast food
computer
35 minutes lunch
calculators
Electronic banking
and shopping
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jet travel
Clustering may make it easy for you to group ideas, but try both methods
– listing and clustering – to see which works best for you.
Exercise: Consider the following topics. Narrow down each to a topic
suitable for an essay. For one topic prepare a list of 15 items; for the
other topic, create clusters of at least 15 items, using secondary clusters
when appropriate.
1- Gun control.
2- Effective teaching.
4-Make a preliminary plan for your essay:
After you have done a prewriting exercise (listing or clustering),
examine the items carefully. If you have done listing, look for ways to
group the items. Then think about possible methods of developing your
essay.
5- Write a clear, limited thesis statement:
A thesis statement serves the same purpose in an essay as a topic
sentence does for a paragraph: it states and imposes limits on a narrowed
topic. The thesis statement usually appears at the end of the introduction
to an essay. Sometimes a thesis statement indicates the subtopics of the
topic or suggests the method of development.
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Exercise: The following thesis statements are vague. Rewrite them to
make them more concrete.
1- Studying American literature teaches us many things.
2- People today are exposed to many health hazards.
3- Music is very important.
6- Make a final plan for your essay:
The final plan for an essay should be developed after the tentative
phrasing of a thesis statement and before writing the first draft. It usually
takes the form of an outline of the ideas and supporting details to be
covered in the essay.
There are two types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence
outline (refer to your second year lecture about outlines). Remember that
the main items are identified by roman numerals, the first sublevel of
items by capital letters, the second sublevel by Arabic numerals, the
third sublevel by lowercase letters, the fourth sublevel by Arabic
numerals enclosed in parentheses, and the fifth sublevel by lowercase
letters enclosed in parentheses. All letters and numbers at the same level
are indented to fall directly under one another.
You will rarely need all six levels. Each level is a division of the level
above it. Therefore, there should be at least two items at every level. A
topic cannot be divides into one item. Moreover, there may be more than
two levels at any level.
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Remember also that all items at the same level must be expresses in
parallel grammatical structure and that you should not use such terms as
introduction, discussion section and conclusion.
The Writing Process: Writing the First Draft
The first draft grows naturally from the planning stages you have
completed. Instead of staring at a blank piece of paper waiting for
inspiration, remind yourself of your purpose, audience and tone; review
your outline and begin to write.
You should not be worried about making your first draft perfect. There
are no distinct stages in the process of writing. You will need to make
some minor revisions even as you write your first draft. Your main
purpose is to get a draft completed as you can revise it later
When writing your first draft, follow the following directions:
1- Write an introduction that includes the thesis statement and that
captures a reader’s interest.
An effective introduction presents the thesis clearly, in a way that will
draw the reader into the essay. Traditionally, introductory methods
consist of the following elements:
-
Descriptions of personal experience that allow a reader to
identify with the writer.
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-
Statements of striking facts or statistics that surprise a reader.
-
A provocative quotation or interesting question.
-
A definition but not merely taken from a dictionary.
-
A glance at an opposing argument or attack on a common
opinion.
-
An anecdote or narrative closely related to the topic.
-
A general discussion of a situation that leads naturally to the
thesis statement.
2- Develop the thesis statement in the discussion section of the essay.
The discussion section of an essay develops the idea advanced in the
thesis statement. If you have written a thorough topic outline or sentence
outline, you have done most of the work already. Each of the main
points of the outline needs to be turned into a topic sentence of a
paragraph
The sublevel items in you outline, rephrased become the supporting
sentences in each paragraph.
As you write the discussion section of your essay, use methods of
development appropriate for your content and purpose.
3- Signal the end of your essay with a short concluding paragraph.
A successful essay concludes; it does not just end. Conclusions and
introductions are important because they are the first and last contact a
writer has with a reader. The introduction arouses a reader’s interest and
presents the thesis statement, and the conclusion completes the
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discussion echoing the thesis and the supporting points. There are
several ways to conclude a paper. An effective conclusion can consist of
any of the following techniques:
- An answer to a question or a solution to a problem raised in the
introduction and explored in the discussion, or a statement that no clear
answer or solution exists, thus showing the complexity of the issue.
- A quotation especially one that amplifies the thesis statement or
verifies another quotation already presented in the introduction.
- A relevant anecdote that the reader will be likely to remember and that
echoes the thesis statement.
- A rephrasing of the thesis statement and supporting points, followed by
a sentence or two that turn the reader’s thoughts to the implications of
the paper.
The conclusion must grow from the paper; it should not open a new
subject by raising questions unexplored in the discussion.
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Rewriting: Structural Revision
If you set your essay aside for a few days before you revise it, you
will be more objective in your evaluation and better to see its strengths
and weaknesses. But if you cannot delay your revision, you must still try
to approach the essay from a reader’s point of view. Review the essay
slowly, concentrating on its overall clarity. Try doing this while reading
out loud. It will help you find confused or inconsistent areas. For your
first reading ask yourself the following questions:
1- Is the thesis statement clear? Does it indicate the scope and
direction of the essay?
2- Is the essay unified? Does every sentence and paragraph have a
clear relation to the thesis?
3- Is the tone consistent?
4- Is the essay organised logically and effectively?
If you need to make changes, make them and then read the essay again,
concentrating on smaller elements of it and using the following
questions as a guide:
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1- Are the paragraphs developed with sufficient detail and
explanation?
2- Does the essay move smoothly from paragraph to paragraph? Is
the essay coherent?
3- Is the introduction interesting and to the point? Does it lead
naturally to the thesis statement? Does the concluding paragraph
bring the essay to a satisfactory close without being unduly
repetitious or introducing a new subject?
During a third reading you should concentrate on even smaller elements.
One way to do this is to read the essay backward sentence by sentence.
By reading each sentence out of context, you may find it easier to
answer the following questions:
1- Are the sentences clear, grammatical, and free from sentence
errors?
2- Is the paper consistent with the conventions of punctuation and
mechanics?
3- Do the words convey your intended meaning? Are they spelled
correctly?
If all this sounds like a lot of work, it is. But excellence is not born in
first drafts. It is achieved through thoughtful revision.
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Voice, Tone, and Audience
-Voice: Writing is different from other school subjects. In Math,
reading, social studies, and science, every student is supposed to study
the same things and come up with the same answers. But in writing, if
everyone writes exactly the same thing, that’s not good- that is copying,
not writing.
Everyone’s writing needs to be different from everyone else’s. And the
way that happens is if writers make different choices when they write,
choices about the topics they pick, the words they use, the details they
include, different beginning and ending strategies, and so on. The set of
all the different choices a writer makes and the collective effect they
have on the reader, is what is often called the “voice” in a piece of
writing.
Voice sometimes referred to as “tone” or “mood” or even “style”, tells
the reader about the writer’s personality in the essay.
Because each of us has a unique personality, each of us has a unique
voice in writing, and that is what makes our writing unique. The trick is
in letting that voice come through. The only way that happens is if we
make different choices in our writing than other writers make in theirs,
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choices that reflect who we are inside- our original thoughts and
personal feelings, our particular way of seeing things and interpreting
them.
-Tone: The tone of your essay reveals your attitude toward your readers
and toward your topic.
A formal tone is impersonal and objective. It is appropriate for
informing and persuading. An informal tone is personal and often
subjective. It is appropriate for addressing familiar audiences and for
entertaining. Between the extremes of formal and informal are an infinite
number of possibilities depending on your purpose, your audience, and
your topic.
Most academic essays are written in a straightforward respectful,
moderately serious tone. Attempts to treat a serious subject in a
disrespectful manner usually fail because such a tone draws attention to
the personality of the writer rather than to the content of the essay.
Use one tone consistently. A serious paper may be enlivened with an
occasional bit of humour, but changes in tone from paragraph to
paragraph are irritating and confusing to readers.
-Audience:
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Your audience will influence choices you make about content and
vocabulary when writing an essay. If you were separately telling police
officers, your parents, and friends about the events at a party, you would
select different details to emphasize for each audience and use different
words to describe the events. In speech you make this adaptation
instantly and naturally, but in writing you must make the adaptation
consciously. It is essential therefore, that before you move too far into
the planning of an essay, you should determine your audience. The
audience might be quite specific- the city council, for example. Or it
might be more general- people over age sixty- five. The audience might
be composed only of people of German descent or of people who have
never been to Hawaii or of people suffering from stage fright. Whoever
the audience is, keep them in mind as you plan an essay.
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The Expository Composition Developed by Examples
1- Number of examples:
In a composition developed by examples, the number of examples you
use depends on the topic. Some topics require numerous examples,
whereas others can be effectively developed with three or four extended
examples.
For instance, the thesis statement “San Francisco has some of the most
unusual sights in California” does not commit the writer to giving
numerous examples; after all the claim is only that this city has “some”
unusual sights. Therefore, three or four extended examples should
suffice.
Some topics on the other hand, require numerous examples for adequate
development. For instance, suppose the thesis statement is “Our city
streets are in terrible conditions”, would three extended examples of
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streets in bad condition be sufficient to develop this thesis statement?
Probably not. It would be rather unwise to assert that all or even most of
the city streets are in terrible condition basing yourself on only three or
four examples. A city has many streets and, in this case, most of them
may in fact be in good condition. A generalisation based on an
insufficient number of examples is called a hasty generalisation. In
other words, it is a generalisation made too hastily before examining
enough evidence. Therefore, thesis statements that state or imply “most”
or “all” may need numerous examples for adequate support. Thesis
statements that are more moderate, stating or implying “some” or “a
few”, can often be supported with fewer, but more developed examples.
2- Choice of Examples:
The examples you use to develop the thesis statement should be
representative examples. They should fairly support the thesis. To be fair
and effective, the examples should be from a range of areas.
3- Organisation of Examples:
The examples and details in an expository paragraph can be organised
according to time, familiarity, and importance. In an example essay,
the principle of organisation is essentially the same: the most
significant examples are kept for the last paragraph.
4- Transitions between paragraphs:
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Developmental paragraphs in the example essay must be connected so
that they flow smoothly. Just because a paragraph introduces an
additional aspect of the topic does not mean that the shift from one topic
to the next should be abrupt; indeed, the shift should be smooth so that
the reader understands clearly the progression of thought. Remember,
just as a paragraph is coherent if the sentences can be switched around
without significant change in meaning, an essay is incoherent if the
paragraphs can be switched around without significant change.
There are two ways to connect the paragraphs in an essay:
♦With transitional expressions
♦With the repetition of key words and phrases
-Transitions to introduce example:
In the first developmental paragraph of an example essay, there are
several phrases to introduce the first example or group of examples:
Examples:
-
Take for example this topic.
-
One example of a person who is kind is my neighbour
-
One area of town where there are examples of improvement is
uptown.
-
One thing that bothers me is air pollution.
-
First, consider the case of Mr. Martinez.
-
To begin (to begin with), consider my roommate.
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In the second developmental paragraph, the examples can be introduced
in a variety of ways.
Examples:
-
Another example of a good teacher is Mrs. Hahn.
-
An additional example is Mr. Ming.
-
Another thing is the safety issue.
-
Second, consider Mr. Jones.
-
Next, consider Ms. Evans.
In the last developmental paragraph, use the same type of transitions as
above, but in an example that introduces the most important or most
significant example, indicate its importance in the beginning of the
paragraph.
Examples:
-
Still another example of a good teacher is Ms. Lin.
-
A final example is the street near my house.
-
Third consider Main Street.
-
Finally, there is the problem of air pollution.
-
The most important example of a helpful person is my advisor.
-
The most significant (interesting) example of air pollution is
provided by Los Angeles.
Repetition of key words and phrases:
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The standard transitional expressions are useful for making paragraphs
connect logically; however, theses phrases used all the time can become
very mechanical and repetitious. For variety and for even more
smoothness, pick up a key idea, word, or phrase from one paragraph and
use it in the sentence introducing the next paragraph.
The model composition:
Help!
Going to a new school can be exciting but for an international
student, the first day on campus can be confusing. When I first arrived at
State University, I was overwhelmed by the size of the campus and the
number of people I saw hurrying from building to building. I did not
know what to do or where to go. Fortunately, I found three helpful
people who saved me from total confusion.
The first person who helped me was the Director of the
dormitory, Mrs Stanton. She helped me register at the dormitory and
took me up to my room. Since my roommate had not yet arrived, Mrs.
Stanton showed me all around the “dorm” (as I soon it was usually
called). She showed me where the bathroom was, where the recreation
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room was, and where the cafeteria was. She very carefully explained to
me all the dormitory rules and told me she hoped I would enjoy my stay
there.
After checking into the dorm, I went down to the cafeteria where
I met another kind person, Robert Long. He saw me sitting alone and
came over to me to ask if I needed any help. He said that I looked a little
lost. I told him that I was a new student from Honduras and that I was
not lost, just overwhelmed. He told me that I should not worry; he said
that he was confused and overwhelmed his first day at state, too. Then
he took me over to the Administration Building to help me find an
advisor. Before he left me there, he gave me his telephone number and
asked me to call him if I ever needed any help in the future.
At the Administration Building I met my advisor, Dr. Torres,
who proved to be extremely helpful. He very kindly explained to me
how to register for classes and what to expect at State University. Dr.
Torres gave me some information about the International Student
Association and suggested that I go to one of their meetings. I was
pleased to know that the foreign students on campus have an
organisation. After Dr. Torres gave me all the necessary information
about registering for classes and purchasing books, he told me to come
see him any time that I have any questions.
All of these people, Mrs. Stanton, Robert Long, and Dr. Torres,
were very kind to me that first day. They made me feel welcome and at
home at a time when I was feeling lost and lonely. I will never forget
these people.
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Activities:
I-Study the essay above about a new student’s first day on campus and
answer the following questions:
1- What is the thesis statement? What is the central idea?
2- How many examples does the writer give? Are the examples
explained adequately?
3- Are there enough examples?
4- Are the examples relevant?
5- Are the paragraphs coherent and unified?
6- How are the paragraphs organised? Why is the example of Dr.
Torres last?
7- Draw an outline of the essay.
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II- Write an essay on the following topic:
At some time in our lives, we have all had to deal with computers. In
order to register for a class, pay a bill, or get a loan, we have had to deal
with a computer. Have you ever had an experience in which a computer
has caused you trouble, misunderstandings, and embarrassment?
Write an essay about the trouble computers can cause and support it with
examples.
The Expository Composition Developed by Comparison and
Contrast
Very often you are asked to compare and contrast two things,
items or people. Comparing and contrasting is a process we all do every
day. We compare and contrast to determine the superiority of one thing
over another. When we buy a car for instance, we usually shop around
and compare deals. We explain something unknown by comparing it to
something that is known. To explain what a barometer is, we can say
that it looks like a thermometer but measures atmospheric pressure
instead of temperature.
We also compare and contrast when we want to show that two
apparently similar things are in fact quite different in important ways, or
to show that two apparently dissimilar things are really quite similar in
34
significant ways (for example two very different cultures have some
important things in common)
We also compare and contrast to show something or someone has
changed (for example Mt St Helens before and after the volcano
eruption)
We have many reasons for comparing and contrasting, and since
comparison and contrast is such a common method of thinking and
developing topics, it is important to write a well organised comparison
and contrast paper.
Keep in mind that with comparison and contrast, the purpose is to
persuade, explain or inform. Think of comparison and contrast as a
method of development, not as a purpose for writing.
Points of comparison:
When comparing and contrasting two things, people, countries…,
it is best to restrict the points of comparison to two to four. Be selective
and choose the most significant points for comparison that would
support the central idea in your essay. For instance, if you were
comparing two politicians in order to show that one is better as public
servant, you would not bother with comparing and contrasting their
tastes in food; it would be irrelevant.
Comparison or contrast?
35
In a comparison and contrast essay, the emphasis is usually on
one or the other; in other words, you spend more time either comparing
or contrasting, depending on your purpose.
If you are comparing two rather similar things, acknowledge the obvious
similarities, but focus on the differences. If you are comparing two
obviously dissimilar things, acknowledge the obvious contrasts, but
again, emphasize the less obvious similarities.
Patterns of organisation:
There are two basic patterns for developing the comparison and contrast
essay:
-
Pattern A (point by point)
-
Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other)
Pattern A (point by point) is useful for organizing complex topics. It is
also an easier pattern to follow than pattern B because the comparison
and contrast is made clear throughout the essay.
A developmental paragraph in a comparison and contrast essay
following pattern A appears to be more complex than a developmental
paragraph in an example essay. In the developmental paragraph in the
comparison and contrast essay, the writer introduces a topic (the point of
comparison) but the topic is broken down into two parts to make the
comparison.
Pattern B (all of one/ all of the other): The points of comparison are the
same and they are discussed in the same order under each section. One
of the problems with pattern B is that it is sometimes difficult to remind
36
the reader in the second section of how the points compare or contrast
with the points mentioned in the first section. Generally speaking,
pattern B is more useful for limited topics.
Transitions for comparison and contrast:
1- Transitions in phrases:
All of the transitions in this group need to be followed by a noun.
The phrase in which they occur is often used at the beginning of a
sentence and is generally followed by a comma. The following
transitions indicate similarity: Similar to, like.
The following indicate difference: different from, in contrast to,
compared with, unlike.
Examples:
-
Similar to New Orleans, San Francisco attracts many tourists.
-
Like Nhan, Hung also wants to do good things for human beings.
-
Different from Nhan, Hung prefers western style clothes.
-
Compared with New Orleans, San Francisco has a very cold
climate.
-
Unlike Nhan, Hung likes to wear comfortable clothes.
2-Coordinating conjunctions as transitions:
The coordinating conjunctions but and yet are often used as
transitions to indicate the opposite of what was expected. Coordinating
conjunctions occur between two complete sentences and are preceded
(but not followed) by a comma.
Examples:
37
-
Nhan is an idealist, but Hung is not.
-
The Speed Demon 280 is cheaper than the Road Runner XL, yet
it has a better air- conditioning system.
Note: Sometimes these conjunctions are used as transitions at the
beginning of a sentence.
Example: Several events contributed to my depression last year. But my
greatest sadness was losing the mathematics contest.
3- Transitional expressions between sentences:
The transitions in this group generally occur between two
independent clauses. When they do, they must be preceded by either a
period or a semicolon.
Examples:
-
Ramos is very intelligent. In addition, he is very rich.
-
Ramos is very intelligent; in addition, he is very rich.
-
Ramos is very rich.. Moreover, he has a nice personality.
-
Ramos is very intelligent; moreover, he has a nice personality.
Occasionally these expressions are used in an independent clause. In this
case, the expression should be set off with commas.
Example:
-
Ramos is very intelligent. He is, in addition, very rich.
-
Ramos is very rich. He has, moreover, a nice personality.
Words and phrases belonging to this group: First, next, besides, in
addition, moreover, furthermore, also, then (to express addition),
38
likewise, similarly, in the same way (to express similarity, on the other
hand, conversely, in contrast, however (to indicate differences).
4- Adverbial clauses of comparison and contrast:
They can be particularly useful in improving coherence in
comparison and contrast writing.
Examples: -Just as, in the same way that (for comparison) .
-
While and whereas (for contrast).
The model composition:
My two Brothers
No two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers,
Nhan and Hung, are no exceptions. When I think of Rudyard Kipling’s
words:
East is East
West is West
Never the twain shall meet.
Even though they have the same parents, their considerable differences
in looks, personality, and attitude toward life reflect the differences
between Eastern and Western cultures.
39
Like the majority of oriental men, Nhan is short, small, and has a
full moon- shaped face. His smooth white skin and small arms and feet
make him look somewhat delicate. Nhan always likes to wear formal,
traditional clothes. For example, on great holidays or at family nice
celebrations Nhan appears in the traditional black gown, white pants and
black silky headband, all of which make him look like an early
twentieth- century intellectual.
In contrast to Nhan, Hung who is his younger brother by ten
years, looks more like an American boxer. He is tall, muscular and bigboned. He is built straight as an arrow and his face is long and angular as
a western character. Unlike Nhan, Hung has strong feet and arms, and
whereas, Nhan has smooth skin, Hung’s shoulders and chest are hairy,
large and full. Unlike Nhan, too, Hung likes to wear comfortable T-shirts
and jeans or sports clothes. At a formal occasion, instead of wearing
traditional formal clothes, Hung wears stylish western style suits.
Nhan and Hung also differ in personality. I don’t know how my
father selected their names correctly to reflect their personalities. Nhan’s
name means “patience”, and his patience is shown in his smile. He has
the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that western people can
never understand. He always smiles. He smiles because he wants to
make the other person happy or to make himself happy. He smiles
whenever people speak to him, regardless of whether they are right or
wrong. He smiles when he forgives people who have wronged him.
Nhan likes books, of course, and literature and philosophy. He likes to
walk in the moonlight to think. Nhan also enjoys drinking hot tea and
40
singing verses. In short, in our family, Nhan is the son who provides a
good example of filial piety and tolerance.
Hung, on the other hand, does not set a good example of
traditional respectful behaviour for his brothers and sisters. His name
means strength, but his strength is self- centered. As a result, unlike
Nhan, Hung only smiles when he is happy. When he talks to people, he
looks at their faces. Because of this, my eldest brother, Nhan considers
him very impolite. As one might expect, Hung does not like philosophy,
and literature, instead, he studies science and technology. Whereas Nhan
enjoys tea and classical verses, Hung prefers to take sun baths and drink
Coca- Cola while he listens to rock and roll music. And like many
American youths, Hung is independent; in fact, he loves his
independence more than he loves his family. He wants to move out of
our house and live in an apartment by himself. He is such an
individualist that all the members in my family say that he is very
selfish.
My brothers’ differences do not end with looks and personalities.
Concerning their attitudes toward life, they are as different as the moon
and the sun. My eldest brother Nhan is concerned with spiritual values.
He is affected by Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist theories. These
theories consider that the human life is not happy. Therefore, if a man
wants to be happy, he should get out of the competitiveness of life and
should not depend on material objects. For example, if a man is not
anxious to have a new model car, he does not have to worry about how
to make money to buy one. Or, if he does not have a car, he does not
41
have to worry about the cost of gas. My oldest brother is deeply affected
by these theories, so he never tries hard to make money to buy
conveniences.
In contrast to Nhan, my brother Hung believes that science and
technology serve human beings and that the West defeated the East
because the West was further advanced in these fields. Therefore, each
person must compete with nature and with other people in the world in
order to acquire different conveniences, such as cars, washing machines,
and television sets. Hung is affected by the Western theories of real
values; consequently, he always works hard to make his own money to
satisfy his material needs.
In accordance with the morality of the culture of my country, I
cannot say which one of my brothers is wrong or right. But I do know
that they both want to improve and maintain human life on his earth. I
am very lucky to inherent both sources of thought from my two older
brothers.
Activities:
Activity one:
1- What is the thesis of this essay? What are the points of
comparison?
2- Does this essay focus more on comparison or contrast?
3- Which pattern does the author use? Why do you think he selected
that pattern?
42
4- Make a detailed outline of this essay. If a topic sentence is
implied, write it out.
Activity Two:
Choose one of the following topics to write an essay.
1- Write an essay comparing and contrasting two famous people.
2- Write an essay contrasting yourself before a particular event and
after the same event. How did you feel before? How did you feel
after?
3- Compare and contrast two teachers of the same subject.
The Composition Developed by Cause and Effect
The cause and effect analysis is an important analytical skill to
develop. To write an essay of that sort, you need to know that there three
types of cause and effect papers. The choice of one type or another will
depend on the nature of the subject and the purpose of the writer.
43
1- Multiple causes→ Effect:
When we analyze the causes of something, we usually find that there
are numerous contributing factors or causes; just how many factors
depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause may or may not
be sufficient to produce the effect. Usually, however, we find that it is a
combination of the causes that produces the results.
Example: The problem of obesity.
What causes obesity? Usually there is not a single cause; rather a
combination of factors leads to obesity:
-
Hereditary influences.
-
Lack of exercise.
-
Slow metabolic rate.
-
Overeating.
In this example, we might find that for some people, only overeating and
a lack of exercise lead to obesity. For others, a slow metabolic rate might
suffice. For still others, hereditary influences might be the cause. Of
course in the discussion of overeating, one might find that behind it lies
a deeper cause: emotional problems. A person might overeat to satisfy
emotional deprivation. Or perhaps some people overeat because they
have a deficiency in a certain enzyme that researchers believe is a factor
in signalling the body to stop eating when it has had enough.
A further examination of the topic might yield even more causes, such as
social or environmental factors. In writing an analysis of this topic, you
could plan to spend about one paragraph on each of the causes; each
44
paragraph would have to provide an explanation of the cause to show
how it contributes to the effect.
Exercise: Choose one of the following topics and write three or four
causes for that effect. Write complete sentences.
-
What causes people to emigrate?
-
Choose a disease that you are familiar with. What factors cause
it?
-
Select a bad habit that you have. Why do you have that bad
habit?
-Organisation of the causal analysis essay.
When discussing multiple causes for an effect, you need to be aware of
the types of causes you are analysing. The causes may be unrelated to
each other, but all are related to the effect. These are often called factors;
they are not causally related to each other, but they work to contribute to
the effect.
When discussing these kinds of causes, arrange the paragraphs (causes)
according to your own preference. However, the most common
principles are:
-
Order of familiarity (obvious to less obvious) and,
-
Order of interest (less interesting to more interesting).
These two principles are useful when the causes are of equal
significance. When one cause is more significant, order the paragraphs
according to importance, with the most important cause last. Remember
to identify the most important cause as the most significant.
45
Causes are not always unrelated, however. Sometimes a cause could not
have brought about an effect unless certain conditions existed. In this
case the causes are related to each other.
Example: The incident that launched Europe into world war I was the
assassination of the Austrian heir to the throne, Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914, by a young Serb nationalist. However, it is
generally felt that this incident alone would not have caused the war if
certain other conditions had not existed in Europe at that time. We could
mention, for example, economic rivalries, heightened nationalism,
imperialism….
In this kind of causal analysis, the causes that directly precede the effect
are called immediate causes (direct causes) and those causes that are
further removed in time from the effect are called remote causes
(indirect causes).
Although remote causes are also often the most important ones, they are
not always the most important or the most reasonable ones. When you
are analysing causes that are not of equal importance or that are
immediate and remote, it is generally a good idea to organise the
paragraphs beginning with the immediate and proceeding to the remote
or from the less important to the most important.
The thesis statement for the causal analysis essay: In a causal analysis
essay, the thesis statement does not have to be persuasive. A topic
sentence is being analysed and the central idea is found in that analysis.
A thesis statement for a causal analysis can simply state briefly the
46
causes to be discussed, or it states briefly the causes to be discussed, or it
may express the most significant cause.
A model essay of causal analysis:
A good life
The people of the Caucasus Mountains of southern Russia have
long been famous for attaining extremely old ages. Arab and Persian
47
chronicles from centuries ago noted the existence of these longevous
peoples. The latest Soviet census report that 70 percent of all people
reaching 110 years or more live in the Caucasus region. An
anthropologist described meeting a woman of 139 years. This does not
seem old at all, however, compared to her first cousin who reached 146
and her great-grandfather who lived to be 160. When we consider that
most people in the United States expect to live only half that long and
that people in some parts of the developing world will live only one third
that long, we cannot help wondering what the causes are for such long
life. Is it exercise, diet, physical environment, cultural environment, or
what? Anthropologists have concluded that exercise and diet are not as
important as a steady way of life with certain cultural expectations and
roles.
The people in most of the Caucasus Mountain region live a slow,
regular rythmic lifestyle. There is continuity in all of the physical aspects
of their life. First, most of the Caucasians live in mountain villages in a
pastoral setting. They work as farmers, herders, or gardeners. Their lives
are regulated by the rising of the sun, the steady rhythm of the growing
cycle, the harvest, and the setting sun. Most of the longevous people
have always held the same jobs. They learned their jobs young, and have
continued in the same job until they are well past 100, some working
until they are 120 or 130. The outdoor work and the mountainous terrain
provide a good deal of exercise. Anthropologists feel that while exercise
contributes to longevity, the rhythmic lifestyles is more important. There
is also continuity in diet. The people of the Caucasus very much enjoy
48
their traditional foods and have no inclination to change. They have
eaten the same lean meat, grains, fruits, and vegetables from childhood
to old age. Traditionally Caucasians are lean people who do not overeat.
Like exercise, anthropologists conclude that it is not the diet itself that is
the secret for old life, although it does contribute. The real secret is the
continuity in diet from birth to death. The consistent, unchanged diet and
regular dietary rhythm allow the body and its digestive system to
become entirely adjusted. Therefore, physiological stress on the
digestive system is at a minimum. The overall evenness of pace in the
Caucasian way of life makes for a feeling of well-being and encourages
longevity.
Another important cause of longevity among the Caucasians is a
stable cultural environment with certain expectations. First, the goals of
the Caucasians do not overreach the possibilities of attainment. Unlike
many Americans who want to be chairmen of the boards or presidents of
the companies, goals which they can never attain, the goals of the
Caucasians tend to be realistic and attainable within their cultural milieu.
Their goals are more people- oriented. They concentrate on being
hospitable and generous towards others, goals which are not only
attainable, but also contribute to the overall well-being of the social
group. Because the goals of the Caucasians are realistic and attainable,
emotional tensions are reduced. This contributes to long life. Second, the
normal expectation within the region is for long life. Individuals expect
to live far beyond the age of 100. On the other hand, the cultural
expectation of people in the United States is for a maximum life span of
49
about 80 years. These cultural expectations become self-fulfilling
prophecies. Further, the Caucasians do not expect the old people to sit
idly by, but to participate actively in all phases of life. A stable
environment with realistic goals and expectations is a second cause for
longevity among the Caucasians.
Finally, longevity is also encouraged by the role of old people in
the family and in the community. The Caucasians have large extended
families of may be 300 people and more. This provides a large network
of people with mutual rights and obligations. The aged are respected as
heads of the family. They make decisions about money, marriages, land
sales, and other matters. They are also expected to be affectionate toward
their grandchildren. The old people are also respected in the community.
They continue to vote, hold office, and make decisions which will affect
the future of the entire community. Because of their important place ib
the family, and in the community, the aged retain a feeling of individual
self-worth and importance. Retaining a positive self-image reduces
physical and mental problems, thus encouraging a longer life.
In conclusion, then, long life among the people of the Caucasus
is the result of complete involvement in a stable environment. Like flows
continuously from birth to death, creating a biological and spiritual
rhythm. Individuals in tune with the rhythm have little emotional stress
and thus live a long time. When we think of our society, we know that
we cannot become Caucasians. But, we should realize that these people
might point out ways of dealing with old age.
50
Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then, answer the following
questions:
-
What is the thesis statement?
-
What is the reason discussed in the second paragraph?
-
What are the controlling ideas in the next paragraphs?
-
Is the writer discussing immediate and remote causes, or are the
causes of equal significance?
-
Does the conclusion follow logically?
-
Make an outline of this essay.
II- Write an essay stating the causes for pollution in a particular area or
city.
2- Cause→ Multiple Effects:
Just as an effect can have multiple causes, so can a cause have multiple
effects.
Example: Several years ago, most people thought that processed sugar
was a relatively harmless sweetener that produced a pleasant taste,
provided a small burst of energy, and perhaps contributed to tooth decay.
There was little concern about the seemingly minor effects of eating
sugar has increased tremendously; in addition, we have begun to
uncover some unpleasant and serious effects of eating so much sugar.
Although sugar may not be the sole cause of some of the following more
remote effects, research has shown it can contribute to them: excessive
consumption of sugar may lead to: blood sugar imbalances, tooth decay,
hyperactivity in children, weight gain.
51
When you write an analysis of effects, expect to devote a paragraph to
each effect.
-Organisation of the Effect Analysis Essay:
The principles for organisation are much the same as those for
organising a causal analysis. Effects can also be unrelated (causally) to
each other, though they stem from the same cause. Although effects can
be of equal value or importance, usually some are more important than
others. In this case, organize the paragraphs dealing with effects
according to order of importance.
Like causes, effects can be immediate or remote.
Example: An immediate effect of the earthquake in Boumerdes, Algeria,
in 2002 was the death of hundreds of people; a more remote effect will
be, perhaps, buildings constructed under a safe and more stringent
building code.
If the analysis is of effects that occur relatively in the same time
relationship with the cause, ie: they are all basically immediate or
remote, it is a good idea to order the effects according to importance.
On the other hand, if the discussion is of immediate and remote effects,
begin with the immediate and continue to the remote (identify the
quality of the effect to the reader as ‘immediate, major…’).
-The thesis statement for an effect analysis essay:
In an effect analysis essay, the thesis statement does not have to be
persuasive.
52
A model composition of an effect analysis development:
For The Love of Winning
53
I am an avid contest enterer. From childhood I could never resist
entering contests on cereal boxes, in bubble gum packages, in
newspapers, magazines, or on television. I have tried to win everything
from a pet turtle to a yacht to a home in the mountains to large sums of
money. Well, imagine my surprise after years of entering and losing at
being notified last year that I was a winner! What had I won for the fourline jingle that I had sent into a cigarette company? The special delivery
letter informed me that I had been awarded the grand prize of $500.000.
After my immediate excitement, I made great plans to spend the money,
and indeed, I have spent a great deal of it. But perhaps more interesting
than my purchases, now six months after that memorable day, are the
effects of my life of winning a great sum of money. Through this
experience, I have come to know other people and myself better.
The most obvious and immediate effect of winning $500.000 has
been material. I made a list of things I have always dreamed of having
but could never before afford, and I went on the greatest shopping spree
of my life. Within a month I had bought a new stereo system, an
expensive sports car, lots of new clothes, and a cabin in the woods. And
I must say, I am very pleased with my new purchases. I enjoy listening
to records on my stereo and driving my Porsche to the cabin on
weekends. I have found that I very much appreciate the pleasures of
having a lot of money.
Another effect, and less enjoyable, has been the change in other
people toward me. Within the first month, I found that people who had
hardly spoken to me before were suddenly « friendly ». I was invited to
54
parties by people I hardly knew and I was expected to return the
invitations. Even with some of my oldest friends, I was expected to foot
the bill on our nights out together, because I had « all that money ».
After a while I became suspicious of people and their motives, thinking
that they only wanted to be with me for my money. Then I came to
evaluate my friends more carefully. I found only a handful of my oldest
friends were still true friends, not caring about the money. Through it all,
I have become a better judge of character.
Perhaps the most significant effect has been the new
understanding I acquired about myself. I think I know who I am better
than I did before I won the money. As I said before, I am happy with my
purchases, however, I do not feel that all my dreams have been fulfilled.
In fact, I have learned that the money is not all that important to me and
that I did not enter the contest in order to get the money. I have realized
that I love the challenge of a good contest and the possibility that with
skill and luck I could win. In short, I simply love winning. I will enter a
contest just for the challenge. For example the other day as I was reading
a magazine, I saw a contest advertised which asked for a fifty-word
summary of a challenging Physical experience. Without thinking, I
rushed to my desk, put some paper in the typewriter, and began writing.
When I thought about what I was doing, I laughed out loud. I did not
particularly want a seven-day trip to Hawaii, I just wanted to see if I
could win !
Winning $500.000 has resulted in a more comfortable life style
for me, it is true. But more importantly, I now understand other people
55
and myself a little better. I am quite happy with my trusted friends, and I
know that for little better, I am quite happy with my trusted friends, and
I know that for every television ad or contest letter that promises riches,
I will send off my lucky number or jingle, not so much for the prize, but
for the love of winning.
Exercises: I- Read the essay carefully then answer the following
questions.
-
What is the thesis?
-
Which kind of effects does the writer begin with?
-
What is the controlling idea in the third paragraph?
II- write an essay to discuss the effects of a political or social change in
your country.
3- The causal chain:
This is another type of cause-and-effect analysis. Unlike the multiplecause-and-effect analyses, the causes and effects in a causal chain are
always directly related. In fact, they are linked. In the causal chain, one
effect can become a cause of another effect, which in turn becomes a
cause of another effect and so on.
Example: A man had problems at work; as a result, he started to drink
heavily. His heavy drinking eventually caused him to behave in an
abusive way to his wife. His wife’s alienation caused him to feel even
more alone and more of a failure; his depression caused him to commit
suicide.
56
This example shows how the analysis is like a domino chain.
There are two major uses of the causal chain:
a- It is sometimes useful for explaining one of the causes in
a multiple cause essay.
b- It is used in science to analyse various kinds of cycles,
biological or chemical chains.
A model composition for a causal chain development:
Upsetting the Balance of Nature
57
The members of a living community exist together in a
particular, balanced relationship, or ecosystem. One animal species eats
another animal species which in turn eats another. Over years, a balance
is worked out among the plants and animals in a community and it
remains basically stable. It is like a huge puzzle with all of the pieces in
their proper places. However, at times this balance in nature is disturbed,
resulting in a number of possibly unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease
results in the near extinction of one species, leaving another species with
no natural predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one
species’ population. This could further result in the devastation of a
shared food supply, which could in turn affect another species. It is
possible for the disruption in the balance of nature to have natural
causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human beings
intervene in a natural environment, perhaps only slightly and with good
intentions. The result is the same. The balance on nature becomes
unbalanced and results in an entire chain reaction of unforeseen and
unwanted effects.
A good example of this occured in the Antilles in the 1870,s
.Sugar cane was a major crop there, but rats were eating and nesting in
the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The mongoose , a one –and-ahalf-foot-long mammal of the East Indies, was known to be an excellent
rat hunter. Several males and females were imported in 1872, and laws
were established that forbade the killing of them or their offspring. The
mongoose flourished in the Antilles. After ten years it had multiplied
abundantly and had
significantly reduced
58
the rat
population.
Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It seemed
that the scheme to add another piece to the ecological puzzle in the
Antilles had been successful.
However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of the
mongoose did not stop there. As the rat population decreased and the
mongoose population increased, the mongoose wanted to enlarge its
menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game, poultry, and began to
destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples. Because the mongoose could
not be hunted, its numbers increased rapidly, and it became a terrible
pest. All of the indigenous animals suffered damage. The mongoose
learned to enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their
eggs. Now, it was specifically these animals that kept the local insect
population in check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a
number of beetles, borers, and other insects that lived on and in the sugar
cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant damage to the cane,
because they were the natural food of so many local animals that kept
their number down. However, as the birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles
disappeared, the insect population began to increase. With no natural
predators to keep them in check, the insects began to do more and more
damage to the cane fields.
Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the introduction of
the mongoose had caused a finely and delicately balanced system to go
awry. The law against killing the mongoose was rescinded, and the
mongoose population was reduced. Gradually, the different members of
the plant and animal community came back into balance with each other
59
and equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of the
community would not soon forget that a single change in an ecosystem
can cause a chain reaction that results in completely unforeseen and
sometimes unwanted effects.
Exercises: I-Read the essay carefully then answer the following
questions:
-
What is the topic of this essay? What is the central idea?
-
What is the incident in the Antilles an example of?
-
Is this causal chain logical? Is the relationship among the causes
and effects clearly and logically presented?
-
Does the conclusion logically follow?
-
Make an outline of this essay?
II- Choose a social problem like alcoholism, poverty, or divorce to write
a causal chain.
-Transitions and Expressions for Cause and Effect:
In writing cause-and-effect essays, transitions are necessary to introduce
causes and effects. This is a list of useful transitions and expressions.
Use them to achieve coherence in your essays.
Because of, as a result, caused by, results from, so, for, thus, therefore,
consequently, as a result, for this reason.
The Essay developed by definition
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A definition essay will share your special understanding about
some idea or thing. Sometimes a definition will prove to be a small but
important part of an essay; sometimes a definition will be the sole work
of an entire essay. When it is the major impetus of an essay, there are
several points to remember.
First, don’t rely on that old cliché of the dictionary or encyclopedia
definition. Even if your intent is to show how inadequate or wrongheaded the dictionary might be, this device has been used far too often to
be effective. The point of your essay is to provide your reader with a
new way of looking at things- your own way.
One way of defining something is to say that it is not. If you are
defining the idea of “home”, you could begin by suggesting that the old
saying “there is no place like home” is silly because there are, in fact,
many places like home- or you could insist that home is really not a
place at all. The opportunity to define is an opportunity to exercise your
poetic imagination, to show how most people’s sense of something is
faulty or inadequate and that there is a better understanding (yours!) to
consider.
In selecting a topic to define, look for something that you can define
within your own experience and that will allow your poetic imagination
some room to play. If you try to define something that is beyond the
comprehension of your paper or your own experience, the task will
become overwhelming and get mired down in details or abstractions.
You could write a book trying to define a concept such as conservatism
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or liberalism and you still would not have said that more than two other
people would agree with. Students would be wise to avoid abstract
notions such as patriotism, beauty, justice, love….
On the other hand, it can be useful to take a rather abstract notion and
put a spin on it. There does not appear to be much a point in defining a
student, for example, but defining what we mean by a good student
could be interesting. Push that definition to the limit to make a special
point. A good student is not necessarily one that earns good grades or
even one that does his best, a good student is one that makes the teacher
feel like a good teacher. Or try defining a good teacher, a good parent, a
good doctor. In any case, if you are going to define something that
everyone else has some idea about, you will need to shed fresh, even
surprising light upon your subject.
Developing a definition:
A definition can be developed in a number of ways.
Example: A definition of a business management concept such as Total
Quality Management (TQM) could begin with a history (a kind of
process paper) of its inception in Japanese management systems, its
migration across the pacific, its implementation and transformation in
American systems, and its predicted demise. It could also (or instead)
include examples of the kind of labour conflict that TQM is supposed to
eliminate or alleviate. Or it could describe TQM as a process, the steps
involved in its implementation, or involve an analysis of its principles
and its place in management theory. Contrasts to other management
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theories might be appropriate, demonstrating what TQM is not as well as
what it is. We could even think of it as a cause and effect situation in
which we describe how TQM responds to certain needs in the
workplace.
A definition essay is not limited to any one method of development and
it may, in fact, employ more than one method at once.
Some rhetorical points about defining things:
- Avoid using the phrases “is where” and “is when” in your definition.
Examples: “TQM is when management and labour agree…”
“A computer virus is where….”
- Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the
predicate, the definition itself):
Example: “A computer virus is a virus that destroys or disrupts
software”.
- Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit the
scope of your paper.
Example: “Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of Jamaica”.
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The model composition for a development by
definition
What is a Yankee?
To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody who
lives in the United States. It is not always a pleasant connotation; in fact,
“Yankee, go home!” calls up images of angry Latin American mobs
protesting the oppression of American imperialist policies.
To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either the
pin-striped New York baseball team or the Northern forces in the
American civil war, the soldiers from north of the Mason-Dixon Line. In
time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has shrunk
geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.
Perhaps the most famous Yankee of all (no offense to the musical
Damn Yankees ! Intended) has star billing in Mark Twain’s novel
Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court. I have lived most of my
life, now, in that Southern New England State. And I can assure you
there are precious few real Yankees around who might have lived in
Connecticut at one time. As television and other forms of mass media
invade our homes and tend to diminish regional differences, to make
Americans more and more homogeneous, the Yankee might be one of
the first genuine American characters to disappear.
A neighbour of mine claims he knows what a real Yankee is all
about. Years ago, he says, he lived next door to one. It seems his
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plumbing was acting up and he’d actually removed the toilet from the
floor and taken it out into the backyard to do some surgery on it. Now,
he knew that his neighbour, who happened to be a professional plumber
as well as the putative Yankee, was well aware of the fact that he was
struggling to fix his toilet, as he knew that his neighbour was home,
doing nothing in particular that day, probably watching from the kitchen
window. But would he come over and offer to help? No way. But when
my friend finally gave up and went over and asked for assistance, the
plumber- neighbour not only agreed to help, he did so gleefully. He
spent the entire afternoon finding and fixing the problem and helping to
return the toilet to its proper place. And wouldn’t accept a dime, of
course.
According to my friend, that’s the first tenet of yankee-ness. You
must never offer help because that makes the person to whom you have
offered assistance “beholden” to you. And a Yankee must never be
“beholden” to anyone. (That’s how the word for this concept is said, and
so we must spell it that way, too.) To be beholden means that you owe
something to someone else. Now, everyone in the world can owe
something to the Yankee, but the Yankee must never owe anyone else
anything, and he can’t really understand someone who would be willing
to be beholden. Thus, he will not offer help- oh, may be in a real
emergency, he would be as good a Samaritan as anyone else- until
asked. When asked, it’s another story. You will get more help than you
can imagine, help in great abundance, more than you could ever deserve
or pay back. So it’s not that Yankees are stingy; on the contrary, a
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Yankee is generous to a fault. But there is a sense of reserve that
prohibits the true Yankee from offering help before being asked. The
sense of inviolate space is paramount: “Good fences make good
neighbours”, says the neighbour in Robert Frost’s poem, “Mending
wall”, and the Yankee will not cross the fence until asked.
Another friend of mine knows someone, a Yankee, a chap born
so far north in Vermont that he’s nearly Canadian, who comes over to
help with his taxes every year. To re-pay him, my friend must resort to
trickery, leaving something on the doorstep in the middle of the night.
To offer anything else, up front, might tip the beholden scales in his
favour and that would be risky.
That’s what I think defines this dying breed of the American
Yankee: an extraordinary sense of balance and reserve, a holding offand yet, behind all that reserve, a reservoir of generosity and friendliness
that can be nearly overwhelming.
Exercises: I-Read the essay then answer the following questions:
1- What is the thesis?
2- What type(s) of development does the writer use in this essay?
3- Does the conclusion follow logically?
4- Write an outline of this essay.
II- Write an essay developed by definition on the following subject:
What is nationalism?
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Expository Development by Logical Division (classification)
When analysing a subject, you break it down into parts to study
the relationship of the parts or the nature of the parts. If you were
analysing the Us government, for example, you would probably begin by
dividing the government into three branches – The legislative, executive,
and judicial- and then by studying how these branches operate to make
up the government. The breaking down of the Us government into parts
is analysis by division.
The principle of division:
When you divide, you classify the members of a group into
categories whose members share similar characteristics. But on what
basis do you assign the members to categories? When you classify, you
need one principle of classification: classification according to common
characteristics. Avoid using more than one principle because in this way
categories may overlap. Most of the principles of classification are of
three types:
-inferior to superior,
-chronology,
-location
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Once you have decided on a principle of classification, check to
see if the classification includes all of the members of the group.
For instance, if you are classifying the students in a class, the
categories might cover each and every one of the students in that class, if
at all possible. If the students in a class were classified as brilliant or
stupid, an obvious group – the average students- would be left out. To
avoid omission of members, and to avoid oversimplifying the analysis,
therefore, it is generally a good idea to divide the group into more than
two categories. For student essays, three or four categories are the
average.
Organisation of the classification (division) essay:
After deciding on the principle of classification and dividing the
group into categories, you need to discuss each of those categories. In
the developmental paragraphs, it is useful to devote one paragraph to
each category. When discussing the category, include the following
points:
1- Identify the group. If it has a special name, identify it.
2- Describe or define the category. What are the general
characteristics of the members of this category? Once you have
established what the category is according to your classification,
discuss the common characteristics of the members.
3- Give examples: often it is helpful to illustrate the characteristics
(which are generalisations) by giving one or two examples of
typical members of the category.
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In the second and subsequent developmental paragraphs, add another
point.
4- Distinguish this category from the other categories: Discuss the
characteristics of the second category by comparing and
contrasting them with those of the first category. Doing this will
help to distinguish between the categories. How does group 1
really differ from group 2. (for coherence, try to discuss the
characteristics in the same order of the previous group).
In these respects, classification papers are a combination of example and
comparison and contrast essays.
Introducing the categories:
In an introductory paragraph, it is often a good idea to introduce
the categories by mentioning the names of the groups. The thesis
statement for the classification essay can be one that simply introduces
the classification and the categories.
Example: the teachers in this college can be classified according to the
way they dress: those who dress formally, those who dress semiformally, and those who dress casually.
Although there is no law that says that the categories must be identified
in the introduction, identifying them will help keep the essay organised.
When you name the categories in the introduction, express them in
parallel structure; that is, express them in the same parts of speech.
Example:
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There are those who like movies, those who hate movies, and those who
are indifferent toward movies.
Transitions for classification:
A classification essay is really a combination of example and
comparison and contrast essay. Therefore, the transitions for this type
are generally the same as those for the example and comparison and
contrast essays.
1- Transitions to introduce categories: first, second, next, last another,
in addition.
2- Transitions to show similarities and differences: unlike, however,
like, in contrast…
3- Transitions to introduce examples: a good example, an excellent
example, for example, typical…
4- Transitions to show the importance of the class: Example: Of the
three types of teachers, the negative teachers are the least agreeable.
Fortunately, this group is in the minority.
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The model composition:
College Teachers
Before I came to college, I was told not to expect my professors
to care much about me or my work; indeed, I was told that I would be
lucky if any of them even knew my name! But when I came to the
university, I soon learned that these generalisations were too broad. Not
all teachers are the same. In fact, I have found that most of the professors
here at State fall into three categories: the positive teachers, the neutral
teachers, and the negative teachers.
The positive teachers are by far the most agreeable teachers. A
positive teacher is one who seems interested in his subject and his
students. The first thing a positive teacher does is try to learn all of the
students’ names. This kind of teacher allows for questions and
discussions in class and does not seem to mind if a student disagrees
with him. A positive teacher shows his interest out of class as well. Not
only is he available for conferences, but he encourages students to see
him if they need help. The students tend to feel comfortable in the
presence of this teacher. A good example of a positive teacher is my
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French teacher, Monsieur Poirrot. He always allows time during the
class hour for some free discussion. Once, when some of the students in
our class were having trouble with the pronunciation of the rolled “r” in
French, he took several hours of his own time to work with us in very
small groups in his office until we had mastered the sound.
Unfortunately, teachers like Monsieur Poirrot are relatively small in
number.
Unlike the positive teachers, the neutral teachers are not very
agreeable. In general, the neutral teachers just do not seem interested in
either the subject or the students. These teachers usually do not learn all
of the students’ names, though they may learn a few. Their classes tend
to be more boring than the positive teachers’ classes because they allow
less time for discussion. However, like the positive teacher, the neutral
teacher allows for questions and some discussion, but he does not seem
to care if the students are interested enough to want to discuss the
subject or not. Although the neutral teacher is available for conferences,
he does not encourage students to come see him for help; as a result,
most students feel slightly uncomfortable in his presence, especially
during a conference. Professor Hilton, my economics professor, is
typical of the neutral teacher. She comes into class, opens her notebook,
lectures, allows questions and some discussion, and then leaves class.
When I had a problem understanding one of the concepts we had
discussed in class one day, I went to her office for a conference. She was
polite enough but did not make any special effort to see that I understood
the concept during the conference. She more or less repeated what she
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had said in class. Very few students go to see her for a conference
because they think she is simply not interested. From what I have
gathered in my conversation with other students, the neutral teachers
make up the largest category.
Of the three types of teachers, the negative teachers are the least
agreeable. These are the kind that every student dreads. Not only do they
not learn the students’ names, but they seem almost hostile both in class
and out of class. In class, the negative teachers, like the neutral teachers,
primarily lecture; they may want the students to learn, but unlike the
neutral and positive teachers, the negative teachers allow virtually no
questions and no discussion. The negative teachers also seem inimical to
the idea of having conferences if at all possible. An excellent example of
a negative teacher is Dr. Wallen, my physics professor. His classes are
twice as boring as any class of a neutral teacher, and he is often
intimidating in class. One day, for example, when one student asked him
to repeat his explanation of the theory of relativity, he became quite
angry and refused to repeat what he had just lectured on. The negative
teacher is too often inflexible; in fact, he seems more like a machine than
a human being. Fortunately, this group is in the minority.
The type of teacher students get can directly affect how much
they learn. Obviously, students learn more from a positive teacher;
unfortunately, as we have seen, this type makes up the minority. Since
the mission of the university is to educate, administrators should try to
get the neutral and negative teachers to improve their teaching methods
and attitudes; otherwise, the administrators should consider dismissing at
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least the negative teachers and make every effort to hire those teachers
who show promise of being positive ones.
Exercises:
I- Answer the following questions:
- What is the thesis?
- What seems to be the writer’s purpose for writing about these kinds of
teachers?
- What is the principle of classification used in this essay?
- What is the controlling idea about the positive teachers?
- What are the characteristics of the positive teachers?
- What is the controlling idea about the neutral teachers? the negative
teachers?
- What are the characteristics of the neutral teachers? The negative
teachers?
- Does the conclusion appear to be logical?
- Write an outline of this essay.
II- Write an essay classifying people’s attitudes toward: work, leisure
time, education, travel. (choose only one option from the list).
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The Argumentative Essay
An argument ensues when two parties disagree about something.
One party gives an opinion and offers reasons in support of it, and the
other party gives a different opinion and offers reasons in support of his
or her stand.
An argument must be argued logically. To be so, it should be
based on an opinion that can be supported by evidence such as facts.
For example: When the three Mile nuclear power plant broke down in
1979, debate ensued concerning the whole issue of nuclear power. Those
in favour of continuing the construction of nuclear power plants argued
against those who wanted to ban further construction of the plants.
The issue was whether or not the United States should ban further
construction. The proponents said yes and gave their reasons; the
opponents said no and gave their reasons. There were definitely two
sides to that issue, but more importantly, it was an issue that was
arguable (arguments of belief or faith, preference, or facts are not
arguable).
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When you write an argumentative essay, you attempt to change
the reader’s mind, to convince him/her to agree with your point of view
or opinion. The argumentative essay attempts to be highly persuasive
and logical. Your thesis should be argumentative. An argumentative
thesis takes a side of an issue and proposes a course of action (often
expressed by the modal should).
Example: In the argument concerning the power plant, the thesis for a
paper on this topic might be:
“The U.S. should ban further construction of nuclear power plants”.
Or, someone else might argue:
“The U.S. should continue building nuclear power plants”.
When you write an argumentative essay, consider the audience.
Remember that your purpose is to convince the reader that your position
is the better one. Begin by assuming that your reader disagrees with you.
Next, remember that although the reader disagrees with you, that does
not mean that he or she is any less intelligent than you. Avoid attacking
the reader. Address him/her by writing objectively, logically, and
respectfully. The most important thing to consider about the audience is
why they hold their opinion and the reasons they might use to support
their opinion. It is important to try to understand your opponent’s point
of view. If you do not understand his reasons and you just argue your
own reasons, you are not likely to convince the reader at all.
How can you convince someone who disagrees with you? First,
try to understand what points need to be argued. You must be sure that
you understand the “heart” of the issue. This step comes by thinking of
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both sides of the issue and determining what the most important points
are. If you know your stand on the issue, and you know what point or
points you have to prove, then you are on the way to construct a logical
argument.
Formal arguments are based on logic. There are two kinds of formal
arguments: Inductive and Deductive.
Induction refers to the process of examining particular details and
arriving at a conclusion based on that evidence.
Deduction refers to the process of arriving at a conclusion about a
particular case based on a generalisation (you begin with a generalisation
and apply it to a specific case)
Explaining and supporting the reasons:
There is no one particular pattern of organisation for an
argumentative paragraph. As far as the purpose is to convince or
persuade, you can use any type of organisation and support that is
suggested by the reason you give (you could develop your reasons by
cause, effect, example, or process). However, you must be certain to
show the progression of your logic. At all times, you should strive to use
details and examples as support. Your best support is facts. Facts include
data that have been objectively proved and are data that have been
objectively proved and are generally accepted, such as historical facts,
scientific data, statistics…. To obtain facts you may be required to
undergo some research.
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Avoid using as facts statements from religious books such as the Koran
or the Bible. Although those whose faith is based on either of these (or
other) books regard them as containing the truth, using them as support
would be ineffective in an argumentative paper. Your reader may have a
different religious belief and may not accept your data as facts.
Another less effective, though sometimes acceptable type of
support includes examples drawn from personal experience. It is fine to
use examples especially if the topic concerns something you are close to,
but the danger is in drawing hasty generalisations from too few
examples. You should remember that examples should be typical,
selected from a sufficient number of examples to prove the case.
Planning the argumentative essay:
The argumentative essay should contain the following characteristics:
1- It should introduce and explain the issue or case. The reader
needs to understand the issue being argued. It is often necessary
to define any ambiguous terms that are key to the discussion. Part
of
good
arguing
is
clear
communication,
and
clear
communication requires that each party understands the terms
being used.
2- It should offer reasons and support for those reasons. The essay
should prove its point.
3- It should refute opposing arguments. It is this characteristic that
is more particular to the argumentative essay than to expository
essays. Since there are two sides to the issue, and since the writer
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wants to convince the reader that he is right, not only must he
prove his own case, but he should also prove that the opponent is
wrong, or at least that his points are more valid or significant.
Refute means to prove wrong by argument.
4- If an opponent does have a valid point, concede that point and
then go on to show that your points are more important anyway.
5- The conclusion should logically flow from the argument. It can
summarize the main points and reassert the thesis. It is very
common, in an argumentative essay, to make a demand for some
action or to offer alternatives.
Organization of the argumentative essay:
The basic workable approach that is commonly used as a pattern for the
argumentative essay is the following:
1- Introduction: Sometimes broken into two paragraphs: the first
one introducing the problem and the second one explaining
additional information or providing definitions.
2- Reasons: Spend one paragraph for each reason. Two or three
reasons are typical.
3- Refutation: Depending on how many points the writer wishes to
address, the refutation can take from one to three paragraphs.
4- Conclusion.
Note: It is possible that the refutation appears before the reasons.
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The model composition
Proficiency Examinations- Who needs them?
“I’m frustrated!” These were the two words of a friend of mine
the other day, and international student on an Folvisa studying at the
university. Although he is a junior in electrical engineering and doing
well in his engineering courses, he has again failed the English
Department’s proficiency examination in composition. And he is not the
only one. I know several international students who can pass differential
calculus with no problem, but cannot seem to get out of the freshman
English because of the proficiency exam. As you know, here at State to
pass freshman English you must be able to write a 500-word essay in
fifty minutes with no more than two “major” errors and five “minor”
errors. While most native speakers of English manage to do this after
two or three semesters of freshmen English, non-native speakers have a
much more difficult time. The reason for this is obvious. Non- native
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speakers need to spend some of their fifty minutes looking up new
vocabulary words, carefully going over grammar constructions, and
looking everywhere for a missing third- person S. While international
students may have more original ideas than native speakers, they may
fail for superficial grammatical reasons. This seems very unfair to me. It
seems clear that international students should be considered special
cases, and therefore the composition proficiency requirements as now
stated should not apply.
The case of international students at an American university is
indeed special. First, most international students are using English as
their second language. When it comes to writing a composition,
international students using a second language usually require more time
than native speakers. International students must spend part of their fifty
minutes looking up words, checking over grammar constructions, and
rephrasing tricky idioms. Furthermore, the composition proficiency
exam is biased against international students. As you know it counts
grammar errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning. A good
example of this is the complement after verbs. Often international
students have very good ideas and concentrate on expressing them. Then
they fail because they use an “ing” participle instead of an infinitive. For
most American speakers of English, the complements after verbs are
automatic; they do not have to think about them at all. Even if native
speakers do not have good ideas, they can still pass the test because they
do not make any grammar errors. Therefore, it seems to me that
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international students should not be judged so severely on grammar, but
should be judged on the quality of their ideas.
My opponents might argue that international students need the
level of English indicated by the exam to get through their other courses.
They fear that international students will fail their math, science, history,
and psychology if they cannot write compositions. This is not true. First,
I would estimate that about 75 percent of international students are
majoring in maths or science. In these classes, professors do problems
on the board or demonstrations in the laboratory. Virtually no English
composition skills are necessary. For further proof, I can give several
other examples,, like my friends above, who are proving every day that
they can do very well (A’s and B’s) in their math and science courses
without having passed the composition test. It seems clear that
international students do not need to write English as well as my
opponents’ think they do. But what about history and psychology
courses, courses that normally require a certain amount of writing skills?
Here too, I can easily show that the proficiency level demanded on the
test is not necessary. On the sophomore level, most introductory courses
in history and psychology are mass lecture courses in which multiple
choice tests, not essay tests, are given. As long as international students
can read the textbooks and tape record the lectures, they can most likely
pass these courses with no more writing than a circle around the correct
letter. The level of proficiency that the composition requires is simply
not necessary for more international students to pass courses in an
American university.
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Perhaps one might argue that the proficiency requirements are
not necessary for American students, either. However, here, I must point
out several things. First, part of the point of writing composition is to
express yourself well in language. Since English is the first language for
most Americans, they surely need to have this skill in their native
language. And because most native speakers rarely study composition
thoroughly in high school, they really do need to have a thorough study
of it the college level. (Of course, if they have studied in high school,
they can generally pass the test with no problem). On the other hand,
many international students have studied composition in their own
language quite thoroughly in high school. Furthermore, in terms of
future careers, American students might need to write well in English for
their future careers. But most international students will not need
English for their career when they go back home; they will use their own
language. Since they have studied composition in high school, they are
most likely adequately prepared in composition skills.
It seems clear, then, that the case of international students at
American universities is special. They are using a second language and
this fact should be taken into consideration when the English
Department reads the final proficiency tests. Further, since the level of
proficiency required on the test is not necessary for most students to pass
their courses, I would propose that the standard used to judge
international student papers be relaxed or done away with. After all, if
students can show that they can pass their other courses, why should the
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university block their way with superficial but often insurmountable
barriers?
Activities:
I- Answer the following questions:
1- What is the issue discussed by the writer?
2- What is the thesis statement?
3- What is the topic of paragraph 2?
4- Where does the refutation begin in the essay? What is the first point
that the writer refutes?
5- Is the argument convincing? If so, why? If not, why not?
6- Does the conclusion logically follow?
7- Does the writer concede any points? Should some points be
conceded? What points?
8- Make an outline of this essay.
II- Write an argumentative essay on the following topic:
Teachers are badly paid; therefore their salaries should be raised.
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Letter writing (formal and informal letters)
I- Formal letter writing:
-Rules for writing formal letters in English:
In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when
writing a formal or business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as
simply and as clearly as possible, and not to make the letter longer than
necessary. Remember not to use informal language like contractions.
-Addresses:
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1- Your address: The return address should be written in the top righthand corner of the letter.
2- The address of the person you are writing to: The inside address
should be written on the left, starting below your address.
-Date:
Different people put the date on different sides of the page. You can
write this on the right or the left on the line after the address you are
writing to. Write the month as a word.
- Salutation or greeting:
1- Dear Sir or Madam,
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It
is always advisable to try to find out a name.
2- Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and
the surname only. If you are writing to a woman and do not know if she
uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which is for married and single.
- Ending a letter:
1- Yours Faithfully
If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
2- Yours Sincerely
If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way.
3- Your signature
Sign your name, then, print it underneath the signature. If you think the
person you are writing to might not know whether you are male or
female, put your title in brackets after your name.
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- Content of a formal letter
First paragraph
The first paragraph should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to
make an enquiry, complain, request something, etc.
The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should
contain the relevant information behind the writing of the letter. Most
letters in English are not very long. Keep the information to the
essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and logical manner
rather than expanding too much.
Last paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect
the recipient to take- to refund, send you information, etc.
- Abbreviations used in letter writing:
The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:
♦asap = as soon as possible
♦cc = carbon copy ( when you send a copy of a letter to more than one
person, you use this abbreviation to let them know)
♦enc = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)
♦pp = per procurationem (a Latin phrase meaning that you are signing
the letter on somebody else’s behalf; if they are not there to sign it
themselves, etc)
♦ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you’ve finished
and signed
♦pto ( informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person
knows the letter continues on the other side of the page)
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♦RSVP = please reply
-The covering letter:
A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you are
applying for a job. Here is a fairly conventional plan for the layout of the
paragraphs.
Opening paragraph
Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add how
you found out about the vacancy.
Paragraph 2
Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the company and
why you wish to be considered for that particular post. State your
relevant qualifications and experience, as well as your personal qualities
that make you a suitable candidate.
Paragraph 3
Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any further
information that you think could help your case.
Closing paragraph
Give your availability to interview, thank them for their consideration,
restate your interest and close the letter.
The letter of enquiry:
A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company
speculatively, that is you are making an approach without their having
advertised or announced a vacancy.
Opening paragraph
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Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let them
know of the kind of position you are seeking, why you are interested and
how you heard about them.
Paragraph 2
Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your
qualifications and experience along with any further details that might
make them interested in seeing you.
Paragraph 3
Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any particularly
important points you would like them to focus on it.
Closing paragraph
Thank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your
enthusiasm for their company and desire to be considered for posts that
might as yet be unavailable.
II- Friendly/ Personal letters
Personal letters, also known as friendly letters and social notes normally
have five parts
1- The Heading: This includes the address, line by line, with the
last line being the date. Skip a line after the heading. The heading
is indented to the middle of the page. If using preaddressed
stationery, add just the date.
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2- The Greeting: The greeting always ends with a comma .The
greeting may be formal, beginning with the word “dear” and
using the person’s given name or relationship, or it it may be
informal if appropriate. Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr.
Wilkins.
Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings (occasionally very
personal greetings may end with an exclamation point for
emphasis).
3- The body: Also known as the main text. This includes the
message you want to write. Normally in a friendly letter, the
beginning of paragraphs is indented. If not indented, be sure to
skip a space between paragraphs. Skip a line after the greeting
and before the close.
4- The complementary close: This short expression is always a
few words on a single line. It ends in a comma. It should be
indented to the same column as the heading. Skip one to three
spaces (two is usual) for the signature line.
5- The signature line: Type or print your name. The handwritten
signature goes above this line and below the close. The signature
line and the handwritten signature are indented to the same
column as the close. The signature should be written in blue or
black ink. If the letter is quite informal, you may omit the
signature line as long as you sign the letter.
Postscript: If your letter contains a postscript, begin it with P.S. and
end it with your initials. Skip a line after the signature line to begin
the postscript.
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The Research Paper
What is a research paper?
A research paper presents the results of your investigations on a
selected topic. Based on your own thoughts and the facts and ideas you
have gathered from a variety of sources, a research paper is a creation
that is uniquely yours. The experience of gathering, interpreting, and
documenting information, developing and organizing ideas and
conclusions, and communicating them clearly will prove to be an
important and satisfying part of your education.
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Gathering materials:
Once your topic has been approved, begin to gather information
from authoritative reference sources: pertinent books, encyclopedias, and
articles in magazines, journals, and magazines. Librarians will show you
how to use the various research tools within the library and may suggest
other sources of information. Important new resources are now available
to you through electronic services which provide many learning and
reference tools as well as access to the internet, where you can often
discover an abundance of information.
Depending on the sources available and the length requirements of your
assignment, you may find it necessary to widen or restrict the scope of
your topic.
Taking notes:
As you examine each source, make a separate note of each fact or
quotation you might want to use in your paper. You may need to use
index cards when preparing notes. Be sure to identify the source of the
information on the listing (include the author’s name and page number
on which the information appears). Try to summarize the information in
your words (paraphrasing). Use quotation marks if you copy the
information exactly. (This rule should apply whether you are copying a
great deal of material or only a phrase). Give each listing a simple
descriptive.
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Your listings –whether they appear on index cards or within some
format on your computer- will now provide the authoritative basis for
your paper’s content and documentation. By arranging and rearranging
the lists and using your descriptive headings, you may well discover a
certain order or different categories which will help you prepare an
outline. You may need additional information or that some of the listings
may not be appropriate and should be set aside or discarded.
Preparing and using an outline:
Using an outline can help you organize your material and can
also help you discover connections between pieces of information that
you were not aware of when you first conceived the plan of your paper.
It can also make you aware of material that is not really relevant to the
purposes of your paper or material that you have covered before and
should therefore be removed.
A working outline might be only an informal list of topics and subtopics
which you are thinking of covering in your paper. Sometimes, however,
an instructor might require that a working outline be submitted at the
beginning of your work; then your instructor might suggest ways in
which the work needs to be further developed or cut back. Your
instructor might also see that you are trying to accomplish too much or
too little for the scope of the assignment he or she has in mind. The
working outline can be revised as you discover new material and get
new ideas that ought to go into your paper. Most word processing
programs have outlining features with automatic formatting that make it
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easy to create and revise outlines. It is a good idea to keep copies of old
outlines in a computer folder in case new versions of the outline lead
you in false directions that you will later have to abandon.
A final outline should enhance the organization and coherence of your
research paper. Instructors sometimes require that a final outline be
submitted along with the final version of your paper. Material that is not
relevant to the purpose of your paper as revealed in your outline should
be excised from the paper; if portions of your outline seem weak in
comparison to others, more research may be required to create a sense of
balance in your argument and presentation. Outlines can be organised
according to your purposes. Are you attempting to show the chronology
of some historical development, the cause –and – effect relationship
between one phenomenon and another, the process by which something
is accomplished, or the logic of some position? Are you defining or
analyzing something? comparing or contrasting one thing to another?
Presenting an argument (one side or both)? In any case, try to bring
related material together under general headings and arrange sections so
they relate logically to each other. An effective introduction will map out
the journey your reader is about to take, and a satisfactory conclusion
will wrap up the sequence of ideas in a nice package.
A final outline can be written as a topic outline, in which you use only
short phrases to suggest ideas, or as a sentence outline, in which you use
full sentences (even very brief paragraphs) to show the development of
ideas more fully. If your instructor requires an outline, follow
consistently whichever plan he or she prefers.
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Plagiarism:
Using someone else’s ideas or phrasing and representing those
ideas or phrasing as our own, either on purpose or through carelessness,
is a serious offence known as plagiarism. “ideas or phrasing” includes
written or spoken material, of course- from whole papers and paragraphs
to sentences, and, indeed, phrases- but it also includes statistics, lab
results, art work, etc. “Someone else” can mean a professional source,
such as a published writer or critic in a book, magazine, encyclopedia, or
journal; an electronic resource; another student at our school or
anywhere else.
The penalty for plagiarism is usually determined by the instructor
teaching the course involved. It could involve failure for the paper and it
could mean failure for the entire course and even expulsion from school.
Working with quotations:
Quotations that constitute fewer than five lines in you paper should be
set off with quotation marks “ “ and be incorporated within the normal
flow of your text. For material exceeding that length, omit the quotation
marks and indent the quoted language one inch from your left- hand
margin. If an indented quotation is taken entirely from one paragraph,
the first line should be even with all the other lines in that quotation;
however, if an indented quotation comes from two or more paragraphs,
indent the first line of each paragraph an additional one- quarter inch.
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Research paper’s format:
Paper: Use white, twenty- pound,81/2- by 11- inch paper.
Margins: Except for page numbers, leave one inch margins all around
the text of your paper- left side, right side, and top and bottom.
Paragraphs should be indented half an inch; set- off quotations should be
indented an inch from the left margin.
Spacing: According to the MLA Guide the research paper must be
double-spaced, including quotations, notes, and the list of works cited.
Heading and title: Your research paper does not need a title page. The
title should be neither underlined nor written in all capital letters.
Capitalize only the first, last, and principal words of the title. Titles
might end with a question mark or an exclamation mark if that is
appropriate, but not in a period.
Page numbers:
Number your pages consecutively throughout the manuscript (including
the first page) in the upper right hand corner of each page, one- half inch
from the top.
Tables and figures:
Tables should be labelled ‘Table”, given an Arabic numeral, and
captioned (with those words flush to the left- hand- margin). Other
material such as photographs, images, charts, and line-drawings should
be labelled “figure”.
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Narrative writing
There is no proper topic for writing a narrative essay. It can be
about a variety of personal experiences. You, the writer, have the right to
say what you want about your personal experience. You can write about
anything, for instance, the worst day of your life, your last birthday….
No topic or subject is off- limits; therefore, there are endless
opportunities to write an essay about your personal point of view of what
happened. Often, the reason behind wanting to write a personal essay is
unclear. Once the writer begins and the events are recorded and
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recounted, it becomes clear that the writer is searching to find the
meaning, the universal truth, the lesson learned from the experience.
When writing, rewriting and good editing, a personal narrative essay
becomes a beautiful thing. It shows how the past or a memory’s
significance affects the present or even the future.
We all have stories to tell. But facing a blank page is
intimidating. Knowing where to begin becomes a real dilemma. A good
place to start is with the word “I”. Write I was, I saw, I did, I went, I
cried, I screamed, I took for granted. “I” is an empowering word. Once
you write it on the page, it empowers you to tell your story. That is
exactly what you are going to do next. Tell the story. Get it all out. Do
not worry about how many times “I” appeared in the text. Do not worry
how scattered and unfocused thoughts are. Write however your mind
tells you to write. The style is often called freewheeling writing or
stream of consciousness. Once the story is all down on paper, you will
go back and begin to shape the essay into a form that says exactly what
you want it to say about your experience. If you are discouraged over
what you have written, leave it away. Let it rest. Take a walk. Do
something that distracts your mind from writing the essay. Many writers
find that even while doing something other than writing, their writing
mind continues to work out what needs to be said.
Personal narrative essays are essentially non- fiction stories, ones that
are neatly arranged like a road map that take the reader from point A to
point B to point C. In life, and in our personal experience things are not
so straightforward as A- B- C. Characters, facts, places, conversations
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and reporting what happened, where you went, what you saw and what
you did is not always so neatly pulled together. That is your job, as the
writer, to pull together all the elements so they bring the reader to the
universal truth, the lesson learned or insight gained in your experience.
How do you do this? Through rewriting and rewriting.
Each time you redo the story more will be revealed to you.
Steps in writing a narrative essay:
1- Write “I” on a blank page.
2- Tell the story as it flows from your mind.
3- Let the story rest in its scattered, unfocused form.
4- Begin re-writing, shaping events in a way to best suit what you
want to say.
5- Re-write, re-write, and re-write.
6- Use language that is full of words that tap into the senses.
7- Get feedback from a reader.
8- Re-write.
9- Have the essay read aloud. Listen.
10- Fine tune your essay.
Features of a narrative essay:
1- The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what
kind of narrative essay it is (an event recurring activity, a
personal experience, or an observation), and it should have a
conclusion that makes a point.
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2- The essay should include anecdotes. The author should describe
the person, the scene, or the event in some detail. There is no
harm to include dialogue as long as you know how to punctuate
it correctly and as long as you avoid using too much.
3- The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your
description and thoughts lead the reader to reflect on the human
experience.
4- The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The
use of “I” invites your readers into an intimate discussion.
5- The writing in your essay should be lively and show some style.
Try to describe ideas and events in new and different ways.
Avoid using clichés. Again, get the basic story down, get it
organised, and in your final editing process, work on word
choice.
Poetry Writing
What is poetry?
It is a short piece of imaginative writing, of a personal nature and
laid- out in lines. Poetry definitions are difficult, as is aesthetics
generally. What is distinctive and important tends to evade the qualified
language in which we attempt to cover all considerations. Perhaps we
could say that poetry was a responsible attempt to understand the world
in human terms through literary composition.
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Poetry today is an amalgam of three distinct viewpoints.
-
Traditionalists argue that a poem is an expression of a vision that
is rendered in a form intelligible and pleasurable to others and so
likely to arouse kindred emotions.
-
Modernists argue that a poem is an autonomous object that may
or may not represent the real world but is created in language
made distinctive by its complex web of references.
-
Postmodernists look on poems as collages of current idioms that
are intriguing but self- contained- they employ, challenge and or
mock preconceptions, but refer to nothing beyond themselves.
What distinguishes poetry from other literary compositions?
Nothing, says a vociferous body of opinion; they are all texts, to be
understood by the same techniques as a philosophic treatise or tabloid
newspaper. But what makes sense only to readers of advanced
magazines, for poetry does indeed seem different. Even if we accept that
poetry can be verse or prose- verse simply having a strong metrical
element- poetry is surely distinguished by moving us deeply. In fact, it is
an art form, and must therefore do what all art does- represent something
of the world, express or evoke emotion, please us by its form, and stand
on its own as something autonomous and self- defining.
Poetry has its beliefs and patterns of excellence. Its insights have to be
acquired by participation: by writing and having that writing evaluated,
by being able to appreciate a wide range of work, and by acquiring the
crafts of literary composition. For a beginning poet, it is essential to read
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widely, join many groups, take criticism seriously and remember the
following points:
1- Poetry may well be the art of the “unsayable”. A good poem lies
somewhere beyond mere words. Any poem that can be
completely understood or paraphrased is not a poem, but simply
versified or emotive prose.
2- Poems are an act of discovery, and require immense effort- to
write and to be understood. The argument against popular
amateur poetry is not that it uses out-of- date forms but that
poetry finds its conceptions too readily. Poetry does not have to
be challenging, it has to explore the nature and geography of the
human condition.
3- A poem is something unique to its author, but is also created in
the common currency of its period, style, preoccupations, and
shared beliefs. You may therefore grow out of the habit of
writing Elizabethan sonnets, if indeed you ever write them, not
by colleagues telling you that the style is old but by
understanding the limits of the Elizabethan world. You will
probably write through many enthusiasms and styles. And
because your experience of the world will be shaped by your
literacy efforts, your conceptions of poetry will change as you
develop a voice commensurate with your vision.
4- Poems are not created by recipe, or by pouring content into a
currently acceptable mould. Shape and content interact in the
final product and throughout the creation process, so that the
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poems will be continually asking what you are writing and why.
The answers you give yourself will be illustrating your
conceptions of poetry. Once again, those conceptions will
develop, eventually to include experiences that are part of you.
5- Many poets have theorized on the nature of their craft. Artists
rarely
paint
the
whole
picture.
To
understand
their
pronouncements, you need first to love their work.
Approaches to writing poetry:
No infallible advice can be given on how to write a poem, because poets
develop their own approaches in time. Nonetheless, here are few
suggestions:
1- Plan. Ask yourself: How much time is available? Opening lines
can be dashed off in minutes but completion may take days or
weeks. Be cautious, and aim perhaps for 5- 10 lines in an
evening. Do not wait for the muse, but write what you can when
you can. Odd phrases and lines are at least something to work
from, and more inspiring than a blank page. When you write
letters or tell stories, do you usually start from a newspaper
article you have read, an anecdote told or overheard, something
witnessed, a general reflection? Start a poem in the way you are
most comfortable with. What sort of poem do you have in mind?
A story, a comment, a protest, an elegy, a character study, or a
memorial? Skim through contemporary examples to start
yourself off. Imagine the poem were a newspaper article: what
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points would you make, with what evidence and arguments? Got
it together? Go on then: let yourself go. Something will emerge.
2- Make sure the subject is important to you.
3- Give yourself up to reverie. Go for a walk, lie on the sofa and
close your eyes, go to bed, cut down the surrounding world. Jot
down the things that come to you, in whatever order or
confusion. Put the scribblings away for the present, and only
open the folder hours or weeks later to see what you have got.
You will be amazed at what is inside you.
4- Free the imagination.
5- Work through metaphors.
6- Write a pastiche- take a stanza of something well known and
rewrite it so that the idiom is entirely different, the lines end with
nonsense rhymes, the piece is ruined with the smallest possible
change and the piece looks completely fresh and contemporary.
7- Take the last line of one of your poems. Carry on from there,
ignoring entirely what you drafted before.
8- Repeat some of these exercises with a fellow student or poet.
Short Stories
Creative short stories do not need all to look alike, but they do all
share a basic structure that makes them “work”. They are readable,
entertaining or profound. This involves learning certain basic skills that
support all successful writing. Once these skills are developed, one may
want to explore various ways of using them, or even breaking the rules;
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but as all serious artists know, one must know the rules before they can
be broken.
The “passionate” first draft:
In the first place, the writer must have both passion and patience.
When you write, you leave the territory of the mundane. The first draft
of your story does not need to follow any rules necessarily, but should be
an outpouring of words. Believe in what you are writing. Explore the
interior realm and pull words from your grief, pleasure, happiness,
anger, and pain. Describe concretely and specifically what you see with
the inner eye, how you feel, what matters to you. Do not write out of a
sense of duty. Good writers do not try to teach a lesson, or to be socially
or politically correct. A first draft should lie on the page spontaneously,
buzzing with the joy of creative energy, regardless of form or quality of
content. As one learns to write, stories will tend to shape themselves in
the first draft, since the basic rules become basic to one’s nature, but
beginners should not worry if the first draft is messy. Learning to write a
short story that works is like learning anything less.
Revisions:
After you write a first draft, it is a good idea to let the story sit for
a while, a few days or even weeks. When you come back to the story for
its first revision, start to notice a few things. Does the story have the
basic elements? Does it have a believable plot? What is the theme, or the
point of the story? Are the characters real? How does the plot build to
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the point of tension wherein everything is resolved in the denouement?
Is the conclusion satisfying?
The basic elements of a short story:
1- The plot: This refers to the premise and action that takes place in
a story. A traditional plot involves conflict and there are all kinds
of conflicts that can be used. These include conflicts between
people, interior conflicts regarding decisions, conflicts between
obligation and desire, or even good versus evil. Be aware of the
conflicts in your story. Do they support and move the plot
forward? Is the plot believable in terms of character motivation?
2- The theme: The theme refers to the point you are expressing in
the story. This might be very subtle. Does the point come across
as a natural outgrowth of the plot, or does it seem forced or
“preachy”? Stories that work express themselves without the
feeling of didacticism, or that one is being taught a moral lesson;
rather, the lesson of the story sits within the plot and
development of character naturally and therefore powerfully.
3- Characters: In stories that work, the characters are more than
cardboard caricatures with wooden hands. When you look at
your first draft, consider character motivation. Do they react
reasonably in proportion with the traits you have granted them?
Do they speak naturally, or does the dialogue sound like an actor
reading lines? It might be a good idea to make up a history for
your characters, known only by you, which is not necessarily
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expressed in the story. A writer should know more about each
character than he or she tells. This gives each character an aura of
mystery and believability.
4- Denouement: This French word refers to the way the conflicts in
the plot come to a pique and are concluded. The short story that
works handles this with care, since this is usually the point where
the implicit theme stands or falls. Do the conflicts resolve or not
resolve themselves in the story? If we are left hanging, not
knowing whether the conflicts have gone in either direction, the
story usually does not work.
5- Conclusion: How does the story conclude? Has the character
changed in any way? Has he learned or not from the resolution of
conflict?
Tightening things up:
Once you establish these elements in your short story, go through
and scratch out every word, paragraph, or page that does not contribute
to them. A short story is not a novel; it is more like a poem, where every
word and sentence counts.
Listen to the advice of others. If a lot of people are distracted by some
sentence you happen to love, think about changing it. Do not be afraid to
revise. You are the creator, the writer, and you have it in your power to
produce something beautiful. This means revision, which is not an act of
mutilation, but of creation- though it may feel temporarily painful now
and then. Re-read your story with a critical mind when you are in
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different moods, and re-write it accordingly. A story that works is the
fruit of rewriting and revision. You will discover that you will see it
differently and find various new things you want to change according ot
your various moods.
Once you have the basics down, you can begin to work on your own
style and unique voice. But these come later. Short story writing takes
skill as well as an artistic temper. You must learn the skills before you
can shape it into art.
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Part Two: Grammar
General Review of “phrase, clause, sentence”
-The Sentence:
A common definition of a sentence is “a complete thought that is marked
by a capital letter at the beginning and a full stop at the end”.
A sentence contains a subject and a predicate.
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Examples:
Subject
Predicate
The cat
smiled
The cat
smiled enigmatically at Alice
A sentence can stand alone.
-Sentence Types:
There are four basic sentence types: Statements- commands- questionsand exclamations.
1- Statements:
They are also referred to as declarative sentences or declaratives. The
function of statements is to convey information.
Example: My dog has buried his bones in the lawn.
2- Commands:
They are also referred to as imperatives. Example: Stop arguing
3- Questions:
They are referred to as interrogatives or interrogative sentences. There
are four main types of questions:
♦Yes/no Questions:
These sentences expect “yes” or “no” for an answer.
Examples:
-Is your brother still at school?
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- Would you like some tea?
♦”Wh “Questions:
These sentences begin with a “wh” word: what, which, when, who, why,
where, how. They cannot be answered with “yes” or “no”.
Examples:
-Why is your shirt dirty?
- What do you think about casinos?
♦Alternative Questions:
They are very similar to “yes/ no”, but they offer a choice of answer.
Examples:
-Did it happen on Monday or Tuesday?
- Should I ring up, or should I write?
♦Tag Questions:
Tag questions are statements with a question tag at the end. Tag
questions, a peculiarity of English, are usually spoken rather than
written.
Examples:
-
It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?
-
He can swim well, can’t he?
-
It wasn’t much of a film, was it?
The form of tag questions is quite regular:
-If the statement is positive, the tag will be negative.
Example: He is an inspiring teacher, isn’t he?
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- If the statement is negative, the tag will be positive.
Example: He isn’t an inspiring teacher, is he?
♦Exclamations:
They are also referred to as exclamatives or exclamative sentences. They
are used to express strong feelings. They can begin with “what” or
“how”.
Examples:
-What a naughty dog he is!
- What an amazing game that was!
- How well everyone played!
- Clauses:
A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate. A
clause is either a whole sentence or in effect -a sentence within a
sentence.
Clauses are often contrasted with phrases, which do not express
complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and predicates.
Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as verbals ( gerunds,
participles and infinitives).
Examples:
-I didn’t know that the dog ran through the yard.
(through the yard) is not a clause, but a phrase since it has no subject or
verb.
(The dog ran through the yard) is a clause; it is a whole sentence
contained within a larger sentence.
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-Categories of clauses:
There are two basic categories: Independent clauses and Dependent
clauses.
♦Independent clauses:
They are also referred to as main clauses, or coordinate clauses. An
independent clause can stand by itself as a grammatically viable simple
sentence. Multiple independent clauses can be joined (usually with a
comma and a coordinating conjunction) to form a compound sentence.
Examples:
-I am a bus driver. (simple sentence).
-I drive a bus. (simple sentence).
-I am a bus driver, and I drive a bus. (compound sentence).
-I want to be an astronaut, but I haven’t gotten my diploma (compound
sentence).
♦Dependent clauses:
A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a
sentence. It usually begins with a subordinating conjunction or in the
case of an adverb or an adjective clause, a relative pronoun. A sentence
with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
referred to as a compound complex sentence.
Examples:
-My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence).
-When they told me I won the contest, I cried, but I didn’t faint.
(compound complex sentence)
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-Types of dependent clauses:
Dependent clauses are often classified by their part of speech:
-
A noun clause functions as a noun.
-
An adjective clause functions as an adjective.
-
An adverb clause functions as an adverb.
Examples:
-That the kid was making so much money bothered me. (a noun
clause is the subject of bothered)
-Her eyes were a shade of blue that reminded me of the sea. (an
adjective clause modifying a shade of blue).
- I have a tendency to hyperventilate when I’m upset. (adverb clause
modifying the entire main clause).
-Phrases:
A phrase is a group of related words, without subject and predicate,
functioning as a verb, a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Phrases are
generally classified as:
♦Verb phrases.
♦Prepositional phrases. They function as adjectives or adverbs.
♦Participial phrases. They are used as adjectives.
♦Gerund phrases. They are used as nouns
♦Infinitive phrases. They are often used as nouns, adjectives or
adverbs.
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Determiners
What are determiners?
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A determiner is any word that limits the meaning of a noun and comes
before adjectives that describe the same noun, but the determiner is not
an adjective
Examples: -My house.
-
I caught a fish yesterday.
There are two main groups of determiners:
- Group A determiners:
These help to identify things to say whether they are known or unknown
to the hearer, which one(s) the speaker is talking about. Whether the
speaker is thinking of particular examples or speaking in general.
1- Articles: a, an, the
The is definite. It is used for singular or plural nouns
Examples: The boys- The table which I write on .
A and An are both indefinite
Examples: A table- An apple.
2- Possessives: My, your, his, her, its, yours, theirs, whose
Examples: His car- your book- their pens
3- Demonstratives: This, these, that, those.
Examples: This book- These cakes- that pen, those boys.
Note:
We cannot put two group A determiners together.
Example: The my house or my this house. In order to put together the
meanings of possessive and article/ demonstrative, we have to use the
structure “This…of mine…”
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Group B determiners:
Most of these are quantifiers. They say how much or how many we are
talking about; some, any, none, little, much, both, each, no, every, either,
neither, half, all, several, enough, few, most, many, what, whatever,
which, whichever.
Some of group B determiners are used with singular nouns
Examples: Each one, each woman, every girl.
Some of them are used with plural nouns
Examples: Many people, several days.
Some of them are used with countable nouns
Examples: a few people, all the group.
Some of them are used with uncountable nouns
Examples: Much time, a little information.
Group B determiners can be put together if the combination makes
sense.
Examples: We meet every few days.
I’ve read all six novels.
Have you got any more coffee?
Group B + group A determiners:
1- “Of” with determiners:
Group B determiners can be used directly before nouns without “of”.
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Examples: Have you got any sugar? (not :any of sugar).
Most people agree with me. (not most of people).
But if we want to put a group B determiner before a noun which has a
group A determiner (article possessive or demonstrative), we have to use
“of”.
Examples: Some people- Some of the people
Each child- Each of my children.
Neither door- Neither of these doors.
Most shops- Most of the shops.
“Of” can be used directly before a noun with no group A determiner in a
few cases. This happens with proper nouns such as place names, and
sometimes uncountable nouns that refer to the whole of a subject or
activity.
Examples: Most of Wales was without electricity last night.
Much of philosophy is concerned with questions that have no answers.
We can have “of” after: all, both and half when they are followed by
nouns (but not when they are followed by pronouns).
Examples: All (of) his ideas
Both (of) her income, but: All of us (not all us).
Note: When each, every, either, and neither are used directly before
nouns without “of” the nouns are singular.
Examples: Each tree- neither partner.
Each of the trees- neither of partners.
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Determiner+ of + pronoun:
Group B determiners can also be used with “of” before a pronoun.
Examples: Neither of them, which of us? Most of you.
Group A+ group B:
Certain group B determiners can be used after group A determiners.
They are: many, most little, last and few.
Examples: His many friends- These few days- the least time- the most
money- a little time- a few questions.
Other determiners:
There are a few other determiners that do not fit into groups A and B.
They are: other, such, what (in exclamation) and only. Other and only
come after group A determiners ; such and what can come before the
article a/ an.
Examples: My other sister- Such a nice day- the only possibility- what a
pity!
Other and such can also come after some group B determiners
Examples: Many other problems- Most such requests.
Much, many, a lot, plenty:
Much is used with the uncountable nouns (much time, much luck…)
Many is for the countable nouns (many people, many cars…).
We use much and many especially in negative sentences and questions
(we didn’t spend much money, do you know many people?).
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A lot, lot(s) of, plenty of are used with both countable and uncountable
nouns (a lot of good luck, a lot of friends, lots of people, plenty of
ideas).
A lot of is more usual in positive sentences (I have got a lot of exercises
to do).
Little- a little- few- a few:
Little and a little are used for uncountable nouns (little energy, a little
ideas)
Few and a few are used for countable nouns (few boys, a few days).
A little and a few mean a small amount or a small number (Let’s go and
have a drink, we have a little time before the train leaves)
Few and little are used in a negative context. They mean “not much”.
(We must hurry; there is little time).
Only a little, only a few have a negative meaning (We must be quick.
We’ve only got a little time).
No and none:(nothing, no one, nobody, nowhere).
We can use them at the beginning of the sentence or alone (no cars are
allowed here, none of this money is mine)
We use no + noun (there was no cars, I’ve got no time).
Any (anything, anybody, anyone), some:
Any: We use it for negative statements and in most questions (I didn’t
find any book, do you want anything?).
It is often used with “if”(tell me if you need any help).
Some: It is used for positive statements (I have something to do, would
you like something to drink?)
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Exercises:
Exercise 01:
Complete the sentences with “no”, “none”, or “any”.
1- It was a public holiday, so there were …… shops open.
2- I haven’t got …….money. Can you lend me some.
3- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were …… eggs.
4- I couldn’t make an omelette because there were not …… eggs.
5- We took a lot of photographs but …… of them were very good.
6- What a stupid thing to do? …….intelligent person would do such a
thing.
7- I will try to answer …… of the questions you ask me.
8- We cancelled the party because …… of the people invited were able
to come.
Exercise 02: Complete the sentences with “some” or “any”.
1- We didn’t buy ….. flowers.
2- This evening I’m going out with ……… friends of mine.
3- Have you seen …… good films recently?
4- I didn’t have …… money , so I had to borrow……..
5- Can I have …….. milk in my coffee, please?
6- I was too tired to do …….work.
Exercise 03: Put “that” or “what”.
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1- I gave her all the money….. I had.
2- They gave their children everything….. they wanted.
3- Tell me …….. you want and I’ll try to get it for you.
4- Why do you blame me for everything…… goes wrong.
5- I won’t be able to do much but, I’ll do ….. I can.
Pronouns
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A pronoun is a word that can be used in the place of a noun or a noun
phrase.
Kinds of pronouns:
1- Personal pronouns:
Nominative: I- you- she- he- it (singular).
We- you- they (plural).
Accusative and dative: Me- you- him- her- it (singular)
Us- you- them (plural).
Use of personal pronouns:
- Nominative: as a subject of a verb (he knows how many houses he
has).
As a complement of the verb “to be” (it is I - was it they?)
In formal conversation the accusative is often used after the verb “to
be”( it is me- was it them?).
But the nominative must be used if the pronoun is followed by a clause.
(Is it I who do it?).
- Accusative and dative:
Accusative: as a direct object of a verb: I saw her.
After prepositions: with him- to her- for us.
Dative: as indirect objects to replace to+ noun pronoun or for+ noun
pronoun: I gave him a book.
2- Possessive adjectives and pronouns:
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, hers, its , our, your , their.
Possessive pronouns: Mine, yours, his, her, its, ours, yours, theirs.
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Possessive adjectives in English refer to the possessor and not to the
thing being possessed: Tom’s father- is his father.
Note that the possessive adjective remains the same whether the thing
possessed is singular or plural. (my book- my books).
Possessive pronouns are used to replace possessive adjectives + noun.
They follow the same rule as possessive adjectives.
This is my pen or, this is mine.
3- Reflexive and emphasizing pronouns:
Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used as object of a verb when the action of the
verb returns to the doer.
I cut myself- ha shaved himself.
Reflexive pronouns are used similarly after a preposition: he spoke to
himself. I did it myself.
Reflexive pronouns can be used for emphasis: to emphasize a noun or
pronoun: The king himself gave her the medal.
When used in this way, the pronoun is never essential and can be
omitted without changing the meaning. It usually emphasizes the subject
of the sentence and is then placed after the subject.(Ann herself opened
the door).
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4- Relative pronouns:
- Defining relative clauses: these describe the preceding noun in such a
way as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class. A clause of
this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun.
Example: The man who dined here last night was taken to hospital this
morning.
-Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses: These are relative
very slightly according to whether they refer to persons or things and
according to their case. They don’t vary from singular or plural or
masculine or feminine.
The forms are as follows: For persons: Nominative: who- that.
Accusative: which- that
Possessive: whose- of which.
For things: Nominative: which- what
Accusative: which- that
Possessive: whose- of which.
-Non- defining relative clauses: they are placed after nouns which are
definite already. They do not therefore define the noun, but merely add
something ti it by giving some information about it. Unlike defining
relative clauses, they are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted
without causing confusion.
Relative pronouns used in non- defining relative clauses:
For persons: Nominative: who
Accusative: whom- who
Possessive: whose
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For things: Nominative: which
Accusative: which
Possessive: of which, whose.
5- Interrogative Adjectives and Pronouns:
Form: For persons: who, whom, whose.
For things: what.
Examples of use: who took my gun?
-Whom did you see?
- Whose are these?
- What delayed you?
- What did they eat?
- Which of them is the eldest?
- Which do you like best?
6- Other pronouns: so, not
So: placed after the verbs (think, hope, expect, suppose, afraid) can
represent a whole clause.
Example: Will Mr. Pitt be here?
Yes, I think so.
Not: can be placed after the verbs hope and afraid to represent a negative
clause.
Examples: Can you play football?
No, I ‘m afraid not.
It is going to rain.
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Oh, I hope not.
7- Quantitative adjectives and pronouns:
These are all numerals together with some, any, no, none, much, many,
little, few.
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Add the appropriate reflexive pronoun to each sentence. If
impossible, put a cross near the example.
1- All you have to do is hide …….behind the door.
2- They are always complaining ……. About my cooking.
3- John’s mother didn’t want him to take the job on the oil rig. In fact,
George didn’t feel very happy about it ……..
4- There’s no need for you to come, I can carry the shopping.
5- Young people …..need to get involved in politics.
Exercise 02: Underline the pronoun in the following sentences and
identify their types.
1- New York city is under siege by gangs with cans of paint.
2- Its walls are covered with layers of paint and obscenities.
3- What is to be done?
4- Some have proposed that the city create an area in which the young
people may paint buildings at no risk.
5- Many want stronger laws and harder punishment that will discourage
the messy criminals from the practice.
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Complex tenses in the active form
1- The present continuous:
Form: Subject + am, is, are + stem + ing
Example: We are studying grammar
Uses:
- We use the present continuous when the action is happening at the
moment of speaking.
Example: Ann is in her car. She is on her way to work. She is driving to
work.
This means she is driving now, at the time of speaking. The action is not
finished
- It is not necessarily happening at the time of speaking
Examples: Tom and Ann are talking in a café.
I’m reading an interesting book at the moment.
Tom is not reading the book at the time of speaking. He means that he
started it but not finished it yet. He is in the middle of reading.
- We use the present continuous when we talk about things happening in
a period around now (today, this week, this evening).
Example: You are working hard today.
- We use the present continuous when we talk about changes happening
around now.
Example: The population of the world is rising very fast.
- We use the present continuous with “always” when the action is
annoying the speaker.
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Example: You are always watching television. You should do something
more active.
2- The present perfect:
Form: Subject + have, has + past participle.
Uses:
-We use the present perfect simple when an action in the past has a result
now.
Example: Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it.
He has lost his key. (He lost it and still hasn’t got it).
- We often use the present perfect simple to give new information or to
announce a recent happening.
Example: The road is closed. There has been an accident.
- We can use the present perfect simple with just, already, yet, recently,
so far, since
- We use the present perfect simple when we mention that it is the the
first time something has happened
Examples: Bob is having a driving lesson. He is very nervous and
unsure, because it is his first lesson.
-
It’s the first time he has driven a car.
-
He has never driven a car before.
3- The Present perfect continuous:
Form: Subject+ have, has + been + stem + ing
Example: It has been raining.
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Uses:
- We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has recently
stopped or just stopped. There is a connection with now.
Example: You are out of breath. Have you been running?
Paul is very tired. He has been working very hard.
- We use the present perfect continuous with “how long, for” and “since”
when the action is still happening or has just stopped.
Example: It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and is still
raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for 2 hours.
- We can use the present perfect continuous for an action repeated over a
period of time.
Example: John is a very good tennis player. He has been playing since
he was eight.
4- Past continuous:
Form: Subject + was, were + stem + ing.
Example: This time last year, I was living in Brazil.
Uses:
- We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of
doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already
started before this time but had not finished.
Example: Yesterday Karen and Jim played tennis, they began at 10
o’clock and finished at 11.30. So at 10.30, they were playing tennis.
- We often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say
that something happened in the middle of something else.
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Example: Tom burnt his hand when he was cooking the dinner.
-
While I was working in the garden, I hurt my finger.
5- The past perfect:
Form: Subject+ had+ past participle.
Example: John had gone to London.
Use:
We use the past perfect if we want to talk about things that happened
before the starting point of the story.
Example: Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too but
they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10.30 and Sarah arrived at
11 o’clock.
When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home.
6- Past perfect continuous:
Form: Subject+ had + been+ stem + ing.
Example: Yesterday morning I got up and looked out of the window.
The sun was shining but the ground was very wet. It had been raining.
Use: You can say that something had been happening for a period of
time before something else happened.
Example: Ken gave up smoking two years ago.
He had been smoking for 30 years.
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7- The future perfect:
Form: Subject+ will+ have+ past participle.
Example: Tomorrow at 09.30, the match will have finished.
Use: We use the future perfect to say that something will already be
complete.
Example: Sally always leaves for work at 08.30 in the morning. So, she
won’t be at home at 09 o’clock. She’ll have gone to work.
8- The future continuous:
Form: Subject+ will+ be + stem+ ing.
Example: After 3 years, I will be teaching English.
Uses:
- We use the future continuous when we will be in the middle of doing
something.
Example: The football match begins at 07.30 and ends at 09.15. So
during this time for example at 08.30, Kevin will be watching the match.
- We also use the future continuous to talk about complete actions in the
future
Example: If you see Sally, can you ask her to phone me?
- Sure, I’ll be seeing her this evening. So, I’ll tell her then.
- We can use the future continuous to ask about somebody’s plans,
especially if we want him to do something.
Example: Will you be passing the post office when you are out?
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Exercises:
Exercise 01: Complete the sentences with one of the following verbs in
the correct form:
Look, make, have, work, learn, try, see.
1-You ……hard today? Yes? I have a lot to do.
2-Would you like something to eat? No thanks, I …..just……lunch.
3- Maria…… English for two years.
4- You
……. A lot of noise. Could you be quieter? I …….to
concentrate.
5- Is Ann coming to the cinema with us? No, she ……already……the
film.
6- Hello Tom, I ……for you all morning. Where have you been?
Exercise 02: Read the situation and write sentences from the words:
1- I invited Rachel to the party, but she couldn’t come. (she arrange to
do something else)
2- You went to the cinema last night. You arrived at the cinema late. (the
film already begin)
3- I was very tires when I arrived at home. (I work hard all day).
4- I haven’t seen Alan for ages when (I last see him) (he try to find a
job).
5- There was nobody in the room, but there was a small cigarette.
(somebody smoke in the room).
6- We were in a very difficult position (we not know what to do).
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Exercise 03: Put the verbs into the correct form: “will be doing” or “will
have done”.
1- Don’t phone me between 7 and 8 we (have) dinner then.
2- Phone me after 8 o’clock (we finish) by then.
3- Tomorrow afternoon we are going to play tennis from 3 o’clock until
4.30, so at 4 o’clock (we play) tennis.
4- Do you think (you still do) the same job in ten years time?
5- If you need to contact me (I stay) at the Hilton hotel until Friday.
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Complex Tenses in the Passive Form
Here only the forms are presented. The uses are the same as with these
tenses in the active.
1- The present perfect: Have, has been + pp.
Example: The room looks nice. It has been cleaned.
2- The past perfect: Had+ been + past participle.
Example: The room looks nice. It had been cleaned.
3- The present continuous: am, is, are being + past participle.
Example: The room is being cleaned at the moment.
4- The past continuous: Was, were + being + past participle.
Example: The room was being cleaned when I arrived.
5- The present perfect continuous: Have, has + been+ being done.
Example: The ceiling has been being painted by Ann because her clothes
are covered in paint.
6- The past perfect continuous: Had been being + past participle.
Example: The ceiling had been being painted by Ann because her
clothes were covered in paint.
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Exercises:
Exercise 01: Rewrite the sentences. Instead of using “somebody” or
“they”, write passive sentences.
1- Somebody has cleaned the room.
2- They have postponed the concert.
3- Somebody is using the computer at the moment.
4- I didn’t realize that somebody was recording our conversation.
5- When we got to the stadium, we found that they cancelled the match.
6- They have built a new hospital near the airport.
Exercise 02: Make sentences from the words in brackets. Sometimes the
verb is active and sometimes the verb is passive.
1- There is somebody behind us (I think we follow).
2- The room looks different (you paint).
3- My car has disappeared (it steal).
4- Tom got a higher salary now (he promote).
5- The man next door disappeared six months ago (nobody see him since
then).
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Sentence Tags
A “tag” is something small that we add to something larger. For
example, the little piece of cloth added to a shirt showing size or
washing instructions is a tag
In grammar, a tag question is a special construction in English. It is a
statement followed by a mini- question. The whole sentence is a “tag
question”, and the mini- question at the end is called a “question tag”.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for information.
They mean something like: “am I right?” or “do you agree?” They are
very common in English.
The basic structure is:
-
Positive statement, negative tag? Snow is white, isn’t it?
-
Negative statement, positive tag? You don’t like me, do you?
Some special cases:
-
I am right, aren’t I? (not amn’t I).
-
You have to go, don’t you? (you do have to go).
-
I have been answering, haven’t I? Use first auxiliary.
-
Nothing came in the post, did it? (Treat statements with nobody,
nothing etc like negative statements).
-
Let’s go, shall we?
-
He’d better do it, hadn’t he?
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How do we answer a tag question?
Often, we just say “yes” or “no”. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and
reverse it (….do they? Yes, they do).
Be careful about answering tag questions. In some languages, an
opposite system of answering is used, and non- native English speakers
sometimes answer in the wrong way. This can lead to a lot of confusion.
Question tags with imperatives:
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders),
but the sentence remains an imperative and does not require a direct
answer. We use “won’t” for invitations, we use “can, can’t, will, would”
for orders.
Examples: Take a seat, won’t you?
Help me, can you?
Help me, can’t you (friendly).
Close the door, would you?
Do it now, will you?
Don’t forget, will you?
Same- way question tags:
It is sometimes possible to use a positive- positive or negative- negative
structure. We use same- way question tags to express interest, surprise,
anger, and not to make a real question.
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Examples:
So you’re having a baby, are you? That’s wonderful.
She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
So you think that’s amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative- negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile: So you
don’t like my looks, don’t you?
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Phrasal verbs
What is a phrasal verb?
Phrasal verbs are idiomatic expressions, combining verbs and
prepositions to make new verbs whose meaning is often not obvious
from the dictionary definitions of individual words. They are widely
used in both written and spoken English, and new ones are formed all
the time as they are a flexible way of creating new terms.
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that
modifies or changes the meaning; “give up” is a phrasal verb that means
“stop doing something”, which is very different from “give”. The words
that modify a verb in this manner can also fall under the name “particle”.
Phrasal verbs can be divided into groups:
1- Intransitive verbs: These don’t take an object. “They had an
argument, but they’ve made up now”.
2- Inseparable verbs: The object must come after the particle. “They
are looking after their grand children”.
3- Separable verbs: With some separable verbs, the object must
come between the verb and the particle. “The quality of their
work sets them apart from their rivals”.
With some separable verbs, the object can come before or after
the particle, though when a pronoun is used it comes before the
particle. “Turn the TV off.”, “turn off the TV”, “turn it off”.
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Some examples of phrasal verbs: This is not an exhaustive list of
phrasal verbs, for more practice check on a dictionary of phrasal verbs.
Add up= add
Break down= analyze
Break into= go into a room suddenly, begin.
Bring off= accomplish.
Bring on= cause.
Carry on with= continue.
Come down with= become ill with.
Fall back on= use for emergency purpose.
Drop off= decline gradually.
Drop out= Cease to participate.
Get around= evade.
Talk over= discus
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Verb Types
Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence.
Examples: I am a student.
The students passed all their courses.
Verbs are classified in many ways.
- Transitive verbs:
Some verbs require an object to complete the meaning.
Example: She gave……, gave what? She gave money to the church.
- Intransitive verbs:
They do not require objects. “The building collapsed”.
In English you cannot tell the difference between a transitive and
intransitive verb by its form; you have to see how the verb is functioning
within the sentence. In fact, a verb can be both transitive and intransitive.
“The monster collapsed the building by sitting on it”.
Although you will seldom hear the term a “ditransitive verb” such as
cause or give, is one that can take a direct object or an indirect object at
the same time. “That horrid music gave me a headache”.
Ditransitive verbs are slightly different , then from factitive verbs, in that
the latter takes two objects.
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-Finite verbs:
A finite verb makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can
stand by itself as the main verb of a sentence.
Examples: The truck demolished the restaurant.
The leaves were yellow and silky.
- Non- finite verbs:
(unfinished verbs) cannot , by themselves, be main verbs.
Examples: The broken window………
The wheezing gentleman……..
Another more useful term for non- finite verbs is verbals which
are : infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do
not function as a true verb. Becaust time is involved with all verb forms
(finite- non- finite), following a logical tense sequence is important.
Verbals are frequently accompanied by other, related words in what is
called a verbal phrase.
Participle:It is a verb form acting as an adjective. A present participle
like “running” describes a present condition; a past participle describes
something that has happened. The distinction can be important to the
meaning of a sentence, there is a huge difference between “a confusing
student” and “a confused student”.
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Infinitive: The root of the verb + the word “to”.
A present infinitive describes a present condition ‘I like to sleep”. The
perfect infinitive describes a time earlier than that of the verb “I would
like to have won the game”.
Gerund: A verb form ending in “ing”, which acts as a noun. “Running
in the park after dark can be dangerous”. Gerunds are frequently
accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund phrase.
-Basic forms of verb construction:
There are four basic forms:
Base form, past form, present participle, past participle.
- Linking verbs:
A linking verb connects a subject and its complement. Sometimes called
copulas, linking verbs are often forms of the verb “to be”, but are
sometimes related to the five senses (look, sound, smell, feel, taste) and
sometimes verbs that somehow reflect a state of being (appear, seem,
become, grow, turn, prove, remain). What follows the linking verb will
be either a noun complement or an adjective complement.
-Those people are all professors.
- Those professors are brilliant.
- This room smells bad.
- I feel great.
- A victory today seems unlikely.
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A handful of verbs that reflect a change in state of being, are sometimes
called “resulting copulas”. They, too, link a subject to a predicate
adjective.
Examples: - His face turned purple
-
She became older.
-
The crowd grew ugly.
-Voice:
Voice in verbs refers to its being active or passive.
- Mood:
Mood in verbs refers to one of three attitudes that a writer or speaker has
to what is being written or spoken.
The indicative mood is used to make a statement or ask a question.
The imperative mood is used to give a directive, strong suggestion or
order.
The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the
following:
-Express a wish.
- Begin with “if” and express a condition that does not exist.
- Begin with “as if” and “as though” to describe a speculation or
condition contrary to fact.
- Begin with “that” and express a demand, requirement, request or
suggestion.
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-Auxiliary/ Helping verbs:
“Will, shall, may, might, can, could…” are used in conjunction with
main verbs to express shades of time and mood.
-Phrasal verbs:
They consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition.
The resulting combination creates what amounts to a new verb, whose
meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non- native speakers.
- Causative verbs:
They designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen.
“The devil made me do it”. The verb “made” causes the “do” to happen.
Here is a brief list of causative verbs:
Let, help, allow, have, require, motivate, get, make, convince, hire,
assist, encourage, permit, employ, force.
-Factitive verbs:
Verbs like “Make, choose, judge, elect, select, name” are called factitive
verbs. These transitive verbs can take two objects, or seem to.
Example: U.S. News and World Report named our college the best in
the northeast. (direct object: our college, second complement: best).
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Catenative verbs
I- Definition:
Catenative verbs are verbs that take other verb forms as object.
Catenative means to link in a chain. Catenatives can be joined at the
head of a series of linked constructions as in: “We agreed to try to decide
to stop eating between meals.
Catenative verbs are also characterized by their tendency to
describe mental process and resolutions.
Example: I want to try to remember to use that website.
Catenatives are said to be a group of chaining verbs and it means
that the verb is accompanied by another verb as object.
Example: I try to avoid to make mistakes.
I hope to go to visit Mecca.
II- The construction of Catenative verbs:
Example: She seems to start to cover her mistake.
The construction of catenative verbs is that they join a series of linked
verbs.
Other examples:
Ann is trying to think to visit her uncle.
My mother seems to start to blame me.
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Notes with examples:
-A great deal about catenative verbs is that we can have a limitless string
of them.
Examples: I hope to hope to hope to hope to hope to be able to help you.
I am trying to try to try to try to be good.
- Catenative means “join on”, and on this basis a model verb is not a
catenative.
Example:
I will will will will go via the shop. (will will will will) are not
catenative verbs because they are not preceded by the infinitive mark
“to”.
- Catenative verbs are lexical verbs which are used as if they were
auxiliaries.
Examples:
I never need to think about this.
I need never think about this.
We notice the difference in the positioning of the adverb “never” and
also the use or non use of the infinitive mark “to”.
-
Just one interpretation of the term catenative, another school of
thought says that any “joining on” is sufficient to give a verb the
designation “catenative”, so the modals are catenatives in the
sense that they go with another verb.
Example: I may will buy a new car.
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III- Some catenative verbs:
-Intend: I intend to intend to go to America.
- Hope: I hope to hope to make you good.
- Expect: I expect to expect to receive a gift from her.
- Need: I need to think to take a vacation.
- Seem: It seems to start to rain today.
- Gonna and Wanna verbs:
- Examples with “to be going to”:
I’m going to read a book about the Algerian revolution.
She’s going to make herself ill because she worked hard.
- Examples with “want to”:
- I want to justify my previous attitude.
- He wants to borrow a novel.
-Meaning of “wanna” and “gonna” verbs:
Gonna: It is a variant of “going to”. We might as well make “gonna”
a legitimate word
Example: Some day, I’m gonna wring his neck.
Wanna: It is a replacement of “want to”
Example: I wanna kiss you.
- The contractive relation between “to be going to” and “gonna”.
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Examples: He’s going to cook dinner ( the form is subject+ be+
going to+ verb+ noun.
We can say “he’s gonna cook dinner” because after “going to” there
is a verb.
But, in “ He’s going to school, we never say “he’s gonna school”.
After going to there is a noun.
Exercises:
1- Fill in the gaps with the verbs in a logical order:
-John ……..to …….to …….. to …….. a new house (think, buy, go,
need).
- Peter ……..to …….to ……to ……..a letter (expect, receive, expect).
- He …….to …….to ……….the mountain (go, climb suppose).
- The situation ………to ……..to ………better. (be, seem, change).
- They ……….to ……….to …………a new factory far from the city
(build, decide, are going).
2-Choose the correct verbs to complete the sentences, then read the
statements with contractions if necessary. (want to, let me, let’s go,
suppose, give me, is going to, should have, supposed to).
- Next week, Susan ………start a new job.
- He ……….to a stadium.
- I ……….be free.
-……….dream.
-…………peace on earth.
- New words………..many times on the day we learned them.
- We are………..have a test tomorrow.
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- Do you ………I could borrow your notes?
- …………..to the party.
Stative verbs
A stative verb is one which asserts that one of its arguments has a
particular property in relation to its other argument. Stative verbs are
static. They have no duration and no distinguished end- point. Verbs
which are not stative are often called dynamic verbs.
Examples of sentences with stative verbs:
-I am tired.
- I have two children.
- I like the blue colour.
- I think they want something to eat.
- We believe in one God.
- The case contains six bottles.
- This would imply that we didn’t care.
In languages where the copula is a verb, it is a stative verb, as is the case
in English”be”.
Some other English stative verbs are: Believe, know, seem, have.
All these generally denote states rather than actions. However, it should
be noted that verbs like “have” and “be”, which are usually stative, can
be dynamic in certain situations.
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Decide which verb is normally stative or dynamic.
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Seem, read, paint, smell, remember, believe, change, understand, jump,
want.
Exercise 02: Put the verb into the correct form. Use either the present
simple or the present continuous.
1- Please don’t make so much noise. I (study).
2- How many languages (Tom speak)?
3- I (not belong) to a political party.
4- Hurry! The bus (come). I (not want) to miss it.
5- The river Nile (flow) into the Mediterranean
6- The river (flow) very fast today- much faster than usual.
7- ( It ever snow) in India?
8- We usually (grow) vegetables in our garden, but this year we (not
grow) any.
9- You can borrow my umbrella. I (not need) it at the moment.
10- I usually (enjoy) parties but I (not enjoy) this one very much.
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Indirect Speech
Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech) doesn’t use
quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be
word for word.
When reporting speech, the tense usually changes. This is because when
we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past
(because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past).
The verbs usually have to be in the past too.
Example: Direct: “I am going to the cinema”, he said.
Indirect: He said that he was going to the cinema.
Tense change: As a rule, when you report something someone has said
you go back a tense.
Direct
Indirect
Present simple
Past simple
Present continuous
Past continuous
Present perfect simple
Past perfect simple
Present perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous
Past simple
Past perfect
Past perfect
Past perfect (no change)
Past perfect continuous
Past
Will
change)
Can
Would
Must
Could
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perfect
continuous
(no
Shall
Had to
May
Should
Might
Note: There is no change to : could, would, should, might, and ought to.
You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that
something is still true.
Example: My name has always been and will always be Lynne so:
Direct: “My name is Lynne”, she said.
Indirect: She said that her name was Lynne. Or: She said her name is
Lynne.
- You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future
event.
Direct: “Next week’s lesson is on reported speech”, she said.
Indirect: She said next week’s lesson is on reported speech.
Time change:
If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change
it to fit in with the time of reporting. We need to change words like
“here”, “yesterday” if they have different meanings at the time and place
of reporting.
Example: Direct: “Today’s lesson is on presentations”.
(+24 hours) Indirect: She said yesterday’s lesson was on presentations.
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Expressions of time if reported on a different day:
Direct
Indirect
This
That
Today
yesterday
These
Those
Now
Then
A week ago
A week before
Last week end
The week end before
Here
There
Next week
The following week
Tomorrow
The next day
In addition, if you report something said in a different place where you
heard it, you must change the place (here) to the place (there).
- Pronoun change:
In reported speech, the pronoun often changes.
Example: “I teach English”.
She said that she teaches English.
- Reporting verbs:
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“Said”, “told”, and “asked” are the most common verbs used in indirect
speech.
We use “asked” to report questions.
We use “told” with an object.
We usually use “said” without an object.
- Use of “that” in reported speech:
In reported speech, the word “that” is often used, However, that is
optional.
In questions “that” is not used. We often use “
Exercise: Write the following sentences in the reported speech.
1- He complained: “The neighbours are noisy”.
2- She thought:” I bought some biscuits yesterday, but I can’t find them
in the cupboard”.
3- The teacher explained: “The exam will be different this year”.
4- The shop keeper assured me: “The freezer will be delivered
tomorrow”.
5- The authorities warned us: “The building is unsafe”.
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Cleft Sentences
Cleft sentences are used to help focus on a particular part of the
sentence and to emphasize what we want to say by introducing it or
building up to it with a kind of relative clause.
Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft (from the
verb cleave) which means divided into two.
Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot
use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also
frequently used in speech.
Cleft structures include: the reason why, the thing that, the person/
people who, the place where, the day when and what clauses which
are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was.
Examples: Compare the following sets of sentences and notice how the
cleft structure in each case enables us to select the information we want
to focus on.
-
I’ve come to discuss my future with you.
-
The reason why I’ve come is to discuss my future with you.
-Your generosity impresses more than anything else
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- The thing that impresses me more than anything else is your
generosity.
-
The jewels are hidden under the floor at 23 Robin Hood Road,
Epping.
-
The place where the jewels are hidden is under the floor at 23
Robin Hood Road, Epping.
- Mary works harder than anybody else in this organization.
- The person who works harder than anybody else in this organization is
Mary.
- Mary is the person in this organisation who works harder than anybody
else.
-
The Second World War ended on 7 MAY 1945 in Europe.
-
The day (when) the Second World War ended in Europe was 7
May 1945.
-
7 May 1945 was the day (when ) the Second World War in
Europe.
- We now need actions rather than words.
- What we now need is actions rather than words.
- Actions rather than words are what we need now.
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-
I enjoyed the brilliant music most of all in the ballet
performance.
-
What I enjoyed most in the ballet performance was the brilliant
music.
-
The brilliant music was what I enjoyed most.
Note from the last two examples that cleft structures with what
clauses are often used with verbs expressing an emotive response to
something like: adore, enjoy, hate, like, love, need…
Cleft structures with what clauses are also often used with does, do, did
and with the verb happen when we want to give emphasis to the whole
sentence rather than a particular clause.
Compare the following:
-
The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident first.
-
What the police did first was (to) interview all the witnesses to
the accident.
It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what in a cleft
structure if you want to focus on one particular thing and nothing else.
-
I want a new coat for Christmas.
-
All I want for Christmas is a new coat.
-
A new coat is all I want for Christmas.
We can also use preparatory “it” in cleft sentences and join the
words that we want to focus on to the relative clause with that, who, or
when. In the following example, note how the construction enables us to
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focus on different aspects of the information which may be important at
the time:
-
My brother bought his new car from our next- door neighbour
last Saturday.
-
It was my brother who…….
-
It was last Saturday when……..
-
It was a new car that………..
-
It was our next-door neighbour that……..
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Make cleft sentences from the following examples:
1- John broke the window.
2- John broke the window with a hammer.
3- John broke the window today.
4- I will remember her kindness.
5- Professor Plum was murdered by Miss Scarlett in the library with the
dagger.
Exercise 02: Put the parts in order to form a cleft sentence.
1- that loved
he
2- December
we
3- It’s
cooking
was
it
that
in
sailing
was
the
of
world
most
the
met
first
it
my
the
does
sister
wanted
have
car
in.
in.
family
most who.
4- Of was
he
5- The what was
all
own
she
to
did
a
police phone.
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his.
Comment clauses
The comment clause is defined in terms of its discourse function.
It is to provide the speaker’s comment on the content of another clause
(the matrix clause). Syntactically, the comment clause functions as a
disjunct in the matrix clause.
One type of comment clause has the formal characteristics of a
main declarative clause, but it differs from ‘normal” main clauses in that
it can occur within another clause (thus resembling a subordinate
clause).
Example: John, I think, is a fool.
John is a fool, I think.
In initial position such a comment clause would be indistinguishable
from a main clause. “I think John is a fool”.
Semantically, such a comment clause indicates that the matrix clause
expresses the speaker’s own opinion. Other comment clauses can be
used to modify or mark the discourse function of the matrix.
Examples:
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You see, it’s too late to do anything about this now. (softening a
statement).
Why are you so late? Well you see, the bus broke down, so I had to
walk. (explanation)
You know, this is something we’ll have to think about. (seeking
agreement).
Unlike “I think” and “I believe”, “You know” and “You see”
can be used in initial position, too. Their status as comment clauses is
marked in speech by the fact that they typically form separate tone units.
The tone unit boundary is conventionally represented in writing by a
comma.
Another type of comment clause has the formal characteristics of
an adverbial sub-clause introduced by “as”.
Examples:
As I keep saying, we can’t solve these problems without increased
funds.
John has resigned, as you may have heard.
This type of clause serves as a comment on the communicative status of
the matrix clause, ie: whether the information presented in the matrix
clause has been mentioned before, is known to the hearer, and so on.
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Conditionals
The conditional says that an action is reliant on something else. The
two most common conditionals are real and unreal, they are sometimes
called “if clauses”.
-
The real conditional (type I) describes situations based on facts.
-
The unreal conditional (type II) describes unreal or imaginary
situations.
-
There is also what we call the third conditional (type III) , used to
express no possibility of something having happened in the past,
and the conditional 0 (zero conditional) , used to express absolute
certainty.
-Type 1:
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If I see you tomorrow, I’ll buy you a drink.
I’ll buy you a drink if I see you tomorrow
Note: Never use will or won’t in the if clause.
Use: To express situations based on fact in the present or future (things
which may happen).
- Type2:
If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house.
I would buy a new house if I won the lottery.
Use: to express unreal situations in the present or future. Often used to
express a wish.
- Type 3:
If I had worked harder, I would, could, should have passed my exam.
I would, could, should have passed my exam if I had worked harder.
Use: To express conditions in the past that did not happen. Often used to
express criticism or regret with would have, could have or should have.
-Type 0:
If you heat water to 100°c, it boils.
Water boils if you heat it to 100°c.
Use: To express general truths and facts (often based on scientific facts).
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Put the verb into the correct form:
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1- They would be rather offended if I (not/ go).
2- If you took more exercise, you (feel) better.
3- I’m sure Amy will lend you the money. I’d be very surprised if she
(refuse).
4- A lot of people would be out of work if the factory (close down).
5- I’m sure Sue (understand) if you had explained the situation to her.
Exercise 02: Use you own ideas to complete these sentences.
1- If you took more exercise,………
2- I’d feel angry if…………..
3- If I didn’t go to work tomorrow,……….
4- Would you go to the party if………….
5- If you bought some new clothes……………………
6- Would you mind if…………………………
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Questions, Answers, Negatives
I- Basic question structure:
The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
Auxiliary verb+ subject+ main verb
Examples :
-Do you like Mary?
- Are they playing football?
- Will Anthony go to Tokyo?
- Have you seen it?
Basic Question Types:
There are three basic types of questions:
1- Yes/ No questions:
A question that can be answered by “yes” or “no”.
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Examples:
Does Ann live in Montreal? Yes, she does.
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can’t.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn’t.
2- Question word questions:
A question that asks for information by using a question word: wherewhen- who- why.
Examples:
Where do you live?
In Paris.
When will we have lunch? At 01 pm.
Who did she meet? She met John.
Why hasn’t Tara done it? Because she can’t.
3- Choice Questions:
They are formed by using “or” to make the choice.
Examples:
-
Do you want tea or coffee? Coffee, please.
-
Will we meet John or James? John.
-
Did she go to London or New York? She went to London.
II- Asking and answering negative questions:
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- We can sometimes use negative “yes/ no” or “wh” questions to make a
suggestion, to persuade someone, to criticize or to show that we are
surprised.
Example:
Why don’t we go out for a meal? A suggestion.
Wouldn’t it be better to go tomorrow instead? Persuading somebody.
- We usually make a negative “yes/ No” or “wh” question with an
auxiliary verb+ not before the subject.
Examples:
Doesn’t he want to come with us?
Haven’t you got anything better to do?
Why can’t we go by bus?
In more formal speech and writing, or when we want to give some
special emphasis to the negative, we can put “not” after the subject.
Examples:
Did she not realize that she had broken the window?
Can’t they remember anything about it?
Why did you not return the money?
If the question word is the subject, we put “n’t” or not after the auxiliary
verb.
Example: Who wouldn’t like to own an expensive sports car? (not who
not would like….).
- We sometimes use negative words other than “not” or “n’t” such as:
never, no, nobody, nothing, nowhere.
Examples:
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Why do you never help me with my homework?
Have you no money left?
Have you nowhere to go?
- We can make a suggestion by “why not+ verb” or “why don’t/
doesn’t”.
Examples:
Why not decorate the house yourself?
Why don’t you decorate the house yourself?
Why not give her what she wants?
Why don’t we give her what she wants?
Note: “Why didn’t” is not for suggestion but for criticism.
Example: Why didn’t you tell me the truth?
Exercise 01:
Write an appropriate negative question for each situation. Use “n’t” in
your answer.
1- Can you show me where his office is?
2- A: ’m afraid I won’t be able to give you a lift home.
B: Why not……
3- A: I’ve left my job at sonelgaz
B: Why?.............
4- A: Will you help me look for my purse?
B: WhY?…………
5- A: May be it would be better not to give that vase to David
for Christmas.
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B: Why not?..................
Exercise 02:
Look at the long answer and then write the appropriate “yes/no”
question. Do not use a negative verb in the question. An example
is provided.
I don’t know your brother.
A: Do you know my brother?
B: No, I don’t.
1- Aspirin relieves pain.
2- Snakes don’t have legs.
3- Snakes can’t move backward.
4- The United States is in North America.
5- I enjoyed the movie.
6- David has left.
7- He left with Ann.
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Substitution
It is a way of avoiding repetition . The most important words and
expressions used for substitution are:
1- Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, themselves and, yourselves.
They are use when the subject and object of a sentence refer to
the same person or thing. They are used as object rather than
subject pronoun. Reflexive pronouns can also be used for
emphasis
Examples:
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I hope you like the ice cream, I made it myself.
We phoned the number and he came himself.
Some verbs are rarely or never used with reflexive pronouns:
complain, concentrate, get yp, lie down, meet, relax, remember,
sit down, wake up.
Example: She concentrated hard on getting the job finished. (not
she concentrated herself).
After a preposition of place or position, we use a personal
pronoun not a reflexive pronoun.
Example:
Jim had the money with him (not with himself).
2- One and ones:
One is used instead or repeating a singular countable noun when
it is clear from the context what we are talking about.
Example:
Nowadays, many people have a mobile phone, but I have never
used one.
Ones can be used instead of repeating a plural noun
Example:
I think his best poems are his early ones.
Notice that we can’t use ones without additional information
(small ones). I nstead, we use “some”
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Example:
We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy green ones this time.
We need new curtains. Ok, let’s buy some (not , lets buy ones).
3- So:
So is used instead of repeating an adjective, adverb or whole
clause.
Examples:
The workers were angry and they every right to be so.
Ali took the work and Asma perhaps even more so.
Bob should be the new director. At least I think so.
We often use “so” after verbs concerned with thinking such as:
be afraid, appear, seem, assume, believe, expect, guess, hope,
imagine, presume, suppose, suspect, think, and also after say and
tell.
We do not use “so” after certain verbs including: accept, admit,
agree, be certain, claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise, suggest and
be sure.
Examples:
The train will be on time today. I’m sure it will. Not: I’m sure so.
In negative sentences we use not or not….so
Examples:
Is the socialist party offering anything new I, its statement? It
would appear not or: it would not appear so.
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They want to buy the house although they didn’t say so directly.
4- Do so:
We use “do so” instead of repeating a verb + object or verb +
complement when it is clear from the context what we are talking
about. We can also use does so, did so, doing so…..
Examples:
She won the competition in 1997 and seems likely to do so again
this year.
Doctor Smith said “sit down”. Mary did so (sat down).
We can also use “do” alone rather than “do so” in less formal
English, especially after modals or perfect tenses.
Example:
Will this programme work on your computer? It should do.
5- Such:
We use “such” + a (an) + noun to refer to something mentioned
before, with the meaning (of this / that kind).
We use such+a / an + noun when the noun is uncountable. Such
is used in this way in formal speech and writing.
Example:
We allow both men and women to have time off work to bring up
children. We were the first department to introduce such a
scheme.
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Other examples of substitution:
To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence, we
can use an auxiliary verb (be, have, can, will) instead of the
whole verb group.
Examples:
She says she’s finished but I don’t think she has.
Are you going to read it? Well, no, I am not.
If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous clause or
sentence, we leave out all the auxiliaries.
If there is no auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence or
if the auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use a form of “do” instead
of repeating the main verb
Examples:
I now play chess as well as he does.
I didn’t steal the money. No one thinks that you did.
If ‘be’ is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence or if the
auxiliary is a form of “do” , we use the main verb.
Examples:
The children are noisy again. They always are.
I’m not happy in my job. I thought you are.
Exercises:
Exercise 01: If possible replace the underlined words or phrases
with one /ones. I f it is not possible, write “no” after the sentence.
1- Their marriage was a long and happy marriage.
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2- We have got most of the equipment we need, but there are
still some small pieces of equipment we have to buy.
3- Traffic is light in most of the city, but there is heavy traffic
near the football stadium.
4- “Are these your shoes?” “No, the blue shoes are mine”.
5- All the cakes look good, but I think I’ll have that cake on the
left.
6- I was hoping to borrow a suit from Chris, but his suit doesn’t
fit me.
7- At present, the music industry is in a better financial state
than the film industry.
8- Have you seen that the clothes shop on the corner has reopened as a shoe shop?
9- The damage to the car was a problem, of course, but an easily
solved problem.
Exercise 02: Complete these sentences with one of the following words:
and, either, to (or to be), allowed, appears, continue, deserved, fail.
1- The weather was good yesterday and will……..over the next few
days.
2- “Is it a beetle?” No, it is a spider. At least it ………to be.
3- You should hand in your work by Thursday, but you won’t have
marks deducted if you ……to.
4- She was fined 500 dinars and ……..to be.
5- I couldn’t keep the cat. I wasn’t……. to.
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Ellipsis
We often leave out words to avoid repetition, or in other cases
when the meaning can be understood without them. This is called
ellipsis.
Ellipsis with “and”, “but” and “or”:
When expressions are joined by “and, but, or”, we often leave out
repeated words or phrases of various kinds.
Examples:
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A knife and (a) fork.
She can read, but (she) can’t write.
She was poor, but (she was) honest.
We drove (across America), rode (across America), flew (across
America) and sailed across America.
Word order:
Note that when two verbs, objects…are the same, it is not always the
second that is left out. We leave out the first if that will produce a
simpler word order and sentence structure.
Examples:
Cats (catch mice) and dogs catch mice. Not: cats catch mice and dogs.
I can (go) and will go.
In formal speech and writing, ellipsis does not usually interrupt the
normal word order of a clause or sentence. Sentences like the following
are typical of a more formal style.
Example:
Peter planned and Jane paid for the holiday.
Kevin likes dancing and Ann athletics.
The children will carry the small boxes and the adults the large ones.
- We can sometimes drop a verb that is repeated in a different form.
Example: I have always paid my bills and I always will (pay).
Singular and plural:
When one verb follows two singular subjects connected by “and”, a
plural verb is of course used if necessary.
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Example:
My mother and father smoke (not smokes).
When two singular subjects are connected by “or”, the verb is singular.
Example:
Either John or Jack was here this morning.
The same could be said for singular and plural verbs with neither…nor.
Example:
Neither Mohamed nor Ali speaks German.
Ellipsis at the beginning of a sentence:
- Words that can be left out: In formal spoken English, we often leave
out unstressed words at the beginning of the sentence if the meaning is
clear without them. Words that can be left out include articles (the , a ,
an), possessives (my, your), personal pronouns (I, you), auxiliary verbs
(am, have) and the preparatory subject there.
Examples:
(The) Cat’s running badly.
(My) wife’s on holiday.
(I) couldn’t understand a word.
(There is) nobody at home.
(Be) careful what you say.
Tags: Ellipsis is very common in sentences that have some sort of tag at
the end, especially in British English.
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Example: Dutch, aren’t you?
Ellipsis in noun clauses:
A repeated noun can sometimes be dropped after an adjective if
the meaning is clear especially when one is talking about common kinds
of choice.
Example:
What kind of potatoes would you like? Boiled (potatoes), please.
Ellipsis after determiners:
Nouns can also be dropped after most determiners and similar words,
including numbers, nouns with possessive’s own and (an) other.
Examples:
These are Mary’s gloves, and these (gloves) are mine.
I’m not sure how many packets I need, but I’ll take two (packets).
Our train is the second (train) from this platform.
You take John’s car and I’ll take Mary’s (car).
Can I borrow your pen? No? find your own (pen).
Well -known names:
The last words of well known names are often dropped.
Example:
She’s staying at the Hilton.( the Hilton hotel).
When we talk about people’s houses and shops, the words “house” and
“shop” are often dropped.
Examples:
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We spent the week end at John and Mary’s (house).
Could you pick up some meat from the butcher’s (shop).
Ellipsis after auxiliary verbs:
Auxiliary instead of complete verb phrase: We can avoid repetition by
using an auxiliary verb instead of a complete verb phrase if the meaning
is clear. The auxiliary verb usually has a “strong” pronunciation, and
contractions are not normally used except in negatives.
Example:
He said he’d write, but he hasn’t (hasn’t written).
Other words, as well as the rest of the verb phrase, can be left out after
the auxiliary, for example, an object, a complement, an adverbial or even
a whole clause.
Example:
I can’t see you today, but I can tomorrow.
Ellipsis is used regularly in short answers, reply questions and tags.
Examples:
Have you finished? Yes, I have.
You don’t drive, do you?
Ellipsis with the infinitive:
We can use “to” instead of a whole infinitive of a repeated verb if the
meaning is clear.
Examples:
Let’s go for a walk. I don’t want to (walk).
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I don’t dance much now but I used to. (dance).
Sorry I shouted at you. I didn’t mean to (shout).
In some cases, the whole infinitive can be left out. This happens after
nouns and adjectives, and after verbs which can stand alone without a
following infinitive.
Examples:
He’ll never leave home, he hasn’t got the courage to
You can’t force him to leave home if he’s not ready to.
Can you start the car? I’ll try to.
Exercise: Give the ellipted form of the following sentences if necessary
1- Is she out this evening? Yes, she is working this evening.
2- She was poor but she was honest.
3- Have you seen Ali? Yes, I have seen Ali.
4- My car isn’t working. I’ll have to use Jack’s car.
5- I was planning to go to Paris next week, but I can’t go to Paris next
week.
6- Are you and John getting married? We hope to get married.
7- This is the restaurant which I was talking about .
8- Phone me if it is necessary.
9- The food is ready and the drinks are ready.
10- I have always paid my bills and I will always pay my bills.
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Modals
All the auxiliary verbs except “be”, “do” and “have” are called
Modals. Unlike the other auxiliary verbs, modals only exist in their
helping form; they cannot act alone as the principle verb in a sentence.
“Be, do, and have” differ from the other auxiliaries in that they can also
serve as ordinary verbs in a given sentence.The modal verbs are: can,
could, may, might, shall, should, ought to, will, would.
Modal
Example
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Uses
Can
-They
can
control -Ability, possibility
budgets
- Inability, impossibility
- We can’t fix it
- Asking for permission
- Can I smoke here?
- Request
- Can you help me?
Could
-Could I borrow your - Asking for permission
dictionary?
- Request
- Could you say it
again more slowly?
- Suggestion
- We could try to fix it - Future possibility
ourselves.
- I think we could have - Ability in the past
another Gulf war.
- He gave up his old
job so he could work
for us
May
- May I have another - Asking for permission
cup of tea?
- Future possibility
- China may become a
major
economic
power.
Might
- They might give us a - Future possibility
discount.
Must
- We must say good - Necessity, obligation
bye now.
- Prohibition
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- They mustn’t disrupt
the work more than
necessary
Ought to
- We ought to employ - Saying what’s right or
a professional writer
Shall
correct
- Shall I help you with - Offer
the luggage?
- Shall we say 2.30 - Suggestion
then?
- Asking what to do
- Shall I do that or will
you?
Should
- We should sort out - Saying what’s right or
this problem at once
correct
- I think we should
check
everything - Recommending action
again
-
Profits
should - uncertain prediction
increase next year
Will
- I can’t see any taxis - Instant decision
so I’ll walk
- Offer
- I’ll do that for you if - Promise
you like
- I’ll get back to you - Certain prediction
first thing on Monday
- Profits will increase
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next year
Would
- Would you mind if I - Asking for permission
brought a colleague
with me?
- Request
- Would you pass the - Request
salt please?
- Would you mind - Invitation
waiting a moment?
- Would you like to - Making arrangements
play
tennis
this - Preferences
Friday?
- Would three o’clock
suit you?
- Would you prefer tea
or coffee?
Note: Modals are always followed by the base form of the verb.
Exercises:
Exercise 01: Complete the sentences using “can”, “be able to”, “can’t”,
“could”, “couldn’t”.
1- George traveled a lot. He …..speak four languages.
2- I can’t understand Martin. I’ve never ……..understand him.
3- I used to …….stand on my head but I can’t do it now.
4- You look tired. Yes, I ……….sleep last night.
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5- I was feeling sick yesterday. I …….eat anything.
6- I’m afraid I ……… come to your party next week.
Exercise 02: Read the situations and use the words in brackets to write
sentences with “must have” and “can’t have”.
1- The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. (I /asleep).
2- Jane walked past me without speaking (she / see/ me).
3- The jacket you bought is very good quality (it / very / expensive).
4- I can’t find my umbrella. (I / leave/ it in my office/ yesterday).
5- Fionna did the opposite of what I asked her to do. (she/ understand/
what I said).
Exercise 03: Write these sentences in a different way using “may” or
“might”.
1- Perhaps Margaret is in her office.
2- Perhaps she is busy.
3- Perhaps she is working.
4- Perhaps she wants to be alone.
5- Perhaps she was ill yesterday.
6- Perhaps she went home early.
7- Perhaps she was working yesterday.
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Semi modals
Semi modals are called so because they are partly like modal helping
verbs and partly like main verbs.
Here are few examples of semi modals:
1- Have (got) to:
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-We use “have to” to say what is necessary to do. “Have to” is
impersonal, we use it for facts, not our personal feelings. It can be used
in all forms: past (I had to go to hospital), present perfect (have you ever
had to go to hospital?).
-In questions and negative sentences with “have to”, we normally use
“do, did, does”.
Examples:
What do I have to do to get a driving license? (What have I to do?)
Why did you have to go to hospital?
Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.
-We can use “have got to” instead of “have to”. So you can say: I’ve got
to work tomorrow or : I have to work tomorrow.
When has Ann got to go? or: When does Ann have to go?
-Although “have got to” is less formal than “have to” and particularly
common in spoken English.
2- Ought to:
We can often use “ought to” to talk about obligations and
recommendations and probability and advice.
- “Ought to” is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about
obligation rather than probability.
- We use “ought to” to say that something is advisable.
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Example: John ought to find a new job.
- We use “ought to+ have+ past participle” to talk about something that
didn’t happen in the past and we are sorry that it didn’t.
- The negative form is “ought not to”
Example: The builders ought not to have finished by the end of the
week.
3- Had better:
We use “had better” for urgent advice when you believe that something
bad will happen if a person doesn’t follow the advice. The negative of
“had better” is “had better not”.
Example: You had better not be late (not you not….).
“Had better” always refer to the present or the future, never to the past.
4- Dare:
In the negative and the interrogative “dare” can be conjugated like an
ordinary or like an auxiliary verb.
5- Used to:
We use “used to” to talk about something that happened repeatedly and
regularly in the past and don’t happen now. The structure is “I used to
do” not “I am used to do”.
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We also use “used to” for something that was true but is not true
anymore.
Example: I used to think he was unfriendly, but now I realize he is a
very nice person.
The negative form is: I didn’t use to like him. or: I used not to like him.
The question form is: Did you use to eat a lot of sweets when you were a
child?
6- Be able to:
We use “be able to” to talk about ability in the present. We prefer “be
able to” when we talk about a specific achievement (particularly if it is a
difficult task requiring some effort) rather than a general ability.
Example: Sami could read when he was four. He was able to use a
computer too.
The negative form is: I was not able to do one problem.
7- Need/ not:
When i t is a modal verb, “need” is most commonly used in negative
sentences, often with verbs like: bother, concern, fear, worry, panic.
Example: I have already cleaned the car so you needn’t bother to do it.
We use “need not” to give permission, serve. We can use either needn’t
or don’t need to .
Example: You needn’t cut the grass. I will do it later. Or: You don’t
need to cut the grass.
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Exercises:
Exercise01:
Complete the sentences with the appropriate semi modal (have to, ought
to, had better, dare, used to, be able to, and need not).
1- I doubt that he will …….to work; his injuries are so severe.
2- I ……. Like going to pop concerts when I was a teenager.
3- Here is someone you really ……..meet.
4- Jane had to get………driving on the left.
5- I had some free time yesterday, so I was…….to write few letters.
6- As I will not be at home tonight, I ……. Do my homework during my
lunch break.
7- We have got plenty of time. We ……hurry.
8- He doesn’t ……….to say anything.
9- I need some money. I …….go to the bank.
Exercise 02: Choose the best answer:
1- I have not…….sleep very well recently (be able to / can).
2- Sandra……..drives, but she hasn’t got a car (be able to / can).
3- I …….. got up early tomorrow, I’m going away and my train leaves at
07.30 (have to / must)
4- I …… get up early tomorrow, there are a lot of things I want to do.
(must / have to).
5- I have an appointment in ten minutes, I ……go now, or I will be late.
(had better / should).
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6- It is a great film, you ……..go and see it. You will really like it. (had
better / should).
7- When the weather was good, we………go walking in the hills every
week end (would / used to).
Adverbs with two forms
In some case, the adverb may have two forms, one like the
adjective and the other with “ly”. There is usually a difference of
meaning or use. Some examples are given below:
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Dead and Deadly:
In certain expressions, the adverb “dead” is used to mean “exactly”,
“completely” or “very”.
Deadly is an adjective. It means “fatal”, causing death. The adverb for
this meaning is fatally.
Examples:
Cyanide is a deadly poison.
She was fatally injured.
Fine and Finely:
The adverb “fine” means “well”.
How are you? I am fine.
The adverb “finely” is used to talk about small careful adjustments and
similar ideas.
A finely tuned machine.
Free and Freely:
When used after a verb, the adverb “free” means without payment.
Buy two shirts and get one free.
Can I eat free in your restaurant?
Freely means “without limit or restriction”
Speak freely.
Hard and Hardly:
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The adverb hard means “heavily”, “severely” or “with difficulty”.
You must work hard.
Hardly means “almost not”.
I have hardly any money left.
Late and Lately:
The adverb late has a similar meaning to the adjective late. Lately means
“a short time ago” and “recently”.
We will be late for dinner.
It is getting late.
I haven’t read anything lately.
Most and Mostly:
Most is the superlative of much. It is used to form superlative adjectives
and adverbs.
Those who have the most are not always the happiest.
What pleased me most was his helping nature.
Mostly means ”chiefly”, “generally” or “in most cases”.
My friends are mostly non smokers.
Real and Really:
In informal American English, real is often used before adjectives and
adverbs. It means the same as really.
That was real nice = really nice.
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She sings real well = really well.
Sure and Surely:
In an informal style, sure is often used to mean “certainly”. This is
common in American English.
Can I borrow your bicycle? Sure.
Exercise: Choose the correct adverb.
1- He works (hard, hardly).
2- He followed the lecture (closely, close).
3- They (hardly, hard) do any work.
4- She (flat, flatly) refused to help.
5- It’s supposed to be a secret, but it is (widely, wide) known.
6- The dentist asked her to open her mouth (widely, wide).
7- That idiot (near, nearly) crashed into us.
8- He always comes (late, lately).
9- She’s been coming here every day (late, lately).
10- Pensioners can travel (free, freely) on local buses.
11- The road runs (nearly, near) the town centre.
12- She’s (high, highly) thought of by her colleagues.
13- Feeling ran (high, highly) during the conflict.
14- Homeless people have to sleep (roughly, rough).
15- The police treated the hooligans (rough, roughly).
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Intensifiers
An intensifier is an adverb which is used to modify adjectives and
adverbs, but which is not usually used to modify verbs.
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Examples:
I am very happy
The film was quite good
You did that rather well
Must you leave so soon?
Intensifiers are called adverbs of degree. They answer the questions
how, how far, how much. They modify other words especially
adjectives, adverbs and verbs.
Use:
We use degree words to place an idea or quality on a scale from positive
to negative
Example: John said: What was the movie mum?
It was absolutely perfect. (really excellent, very good indeed, very good,
quite good, fairly good).
Not very good, rather poor, bad, very bad, extremely bad, dreadful.
Scales of degrees:
-
The highest degree: completely, full, totally different.
-
High degree: Very, full, extremely.
-
Middle / low degree. Rather full, pretty, good.
Position of degree words:
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Degree words usually go before adjectives, adverbs and comparative
words.
Examples:
Quite young
So quiet
Very often
Too slowly
Too quickly
Much older
Rather more
“Enough” is a special exception to the rule as a degree word. It follows
the word it modifies, even when it is an adjective or adverb.
The position of degree words with verbs varies. Some degree words go
before the verb (quite, rather).
Examples:
I rather like her.
Have you quite finished?
”most” goes before and after the verb+ the object.
Example: We failed completely. We completely failed.
Exercise: Put one of these adverbs in the appropriate place: very, very
much, enough, much, far, fairly, too, so, completely, rather.
1- At the age of five, my son was ……afraid of dark, he felt…..alone.
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2- I think her presentation is ……. The best, she speaks far……..fast.
3- She cooks well ……, I suppose she could be excellent if she took
more trouble.
4- That is a …….. pleasant room.
5- I walk …… fast, but Ann walks ……..slowly.
6- The wallet was …….big to put in my pocket.
7- All what you have done is …….wrong, you are ……insane.
8- There were ……… twenty people there.
9- I was ……. Busy when I met Ann, I …….. looked at her, but she
looked…… at me.
10- You work hard ……. For the firm, but you never spend any time
with the family.
11- I ……. Like the smell of petrol.
Bibliography
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- Bander G. Robert: American English Rhetoric (third edition) ,
Holt, Rineheart and Winston, 1983.
- Smalley L. Regina and Ruetton K. Mary (second edition), Mc
Millan publishing Company, New York.
- Dornan A. and Dawe W. Charles: The Brief English Handbook.
1984.
- Murphy Raymond: English Grammar in Use (second edition)
CUP 1994.
- Hewings Martin : Adavnced Grammar in Use. CUP 1999.
- Thomson A.J and Martinet A.V: A Practical English Grammar
OUP 1980.
- http://www.ccc.commnet.edu/ mla/ practical _guide.shtml. A
Guide for Writing Research Papers
Based on Modern Language
Association (MLA) Documentation.
-
http://www.rscc.cc.tn.us/ow/&writing
center
/
owl/
narration.html/. A Brief Guide to Writing Narrative Essays . The
RSCC online writing lab.1988 Jennifer Jordan- Henley.
- http://www.Poetrymagic.co.uk/ whatis poetry.html. Writing
Poetry: Approaches.
- http://ok.essortment.com/writingshortst-rrmi.html. Writing Short
Stories That Work.
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http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.questions-tag.htm.
Tag Questions. English Club.com.
- http://www.learnenglish.de/grammarpage.htm.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stative_verb.
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