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Confucianism
Confucianism is a major system of thought in China It developed from the teachings of
Confucius (551-479 BC). Though not one of the “big five” world religions (Judaism,
Christianity, Islam,
Hinduism, and
Buddhism), and with
probably less than 500
million adhirants,
Confucianism, had a large
influence on Chinese
thought and life. It has
shaped much of the
cultural outlook of the
Orient, even spreading to
Japan, Korea, and several
other eastern countries.
Some call Confucianism
a philosophy of life and
not a religion. There is
not church or priesthood,
and Confucius himself
never claimed deity.
The central concept of
Confucianism can be
summed up with the word
“jen”. Jen basically
means
social virtue. Their rule of thumb closely resembles the golden rule “What you
do not want done to yourself, do not do unto others.” As with all false religions,
it is based on works, not grace. Their most noted Symbol means total harmony
and righteousness. Confucius aspired “To be able under all circumstances to
practice five things constitutes perfect virtue; these five things are gravity,
generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness and kindness” This would constitute the Virtuous Man.
This Virtuous Man has three awes:
 An awe for Heaven’s decree
 An awe for great men
 An awe for saint’s words
Little is known of the man Confucius. He was likely from a wealthy land-owning family that was forced t
o take up a trade as they fell upon hard times. He lost his father at a young age. Through frugal living,
his mother was able to provide him with a good education. He became a teacher, offering instruction in
all six subjects (history, poetry, government, propriety, music, and divination).1
Tradition tells us that he attempted to secure a high-level government position, and upon failing, traveled
around with his disciples. He was entertained and treated honorably
by most lords and kings but never taken too seriously. He came
upon two realizations that drove him to seek reformation. The first
realization was that China at his time was disturbingly corrupt. He
also believed that the moral condition of his country was not beyond
salvage. In short, man’s behavior had become corrupt, but not man
himself.
Confucius promoted a society that was family based and powered by
virtue. He outlined how each of the five great human relationships
was to be undertaken:
1. Kindness in the father; filial piety in the son.
2. Gentility in the eldest brother; humility and respect in the
younger.
3. Righteous behavior in the husband; obedience in the wife.
4. Humane consideration in elders; deference in juniors.
5. Benevolence in rulers; loyalty in ministers and subjects.2
Unity, harmony, and order are all central concepts of
Confucianism.
When wives and children and their sires are one,
‘Tis like the harp and lute in unison.
A prince by courteous carriage may create
Concord in court and order in the state.
We see then how ancestral worship is engrained in both culture and religion. Confucius once
remarked, “The Emperor Wu and his brother, Duke Chou, were indeed eminently pious men….
“In spring and autumn they repaired and put in order the ancestral temple, arranged the
sacrificial vessels, exhibited the regalia and heirlooms of the family, and presented the
appropriate offerings of the season…
“To gather in the same place where our father before us have gathered; to perform the
same ceremonies which they before us have performed; to play the same music which they
before us have played; to pay respect to those whom they have honored; to love those who were
dear to them—in fact, to serve those now dead as if they were living, and now departed as if they
were still with us: this is the highest achievement of true filial piety.”
A Superior Man is motivated to practice li because he is realizing his own goodness or
uprightness. Though some of Confucius’s writing bear witness of a truly humble spirit, others
do not. He is said to have calmly stated, “At fifteen I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty I
stood firm. At forty I had no doubts. At fifty I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty my ear
1
2
Noss, 430.
Noss, 351.
was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy I could do what my heart desired
without transgressing what was right.” This gives us a glimpse of interior righteousness
resulting in exterior virtue.
The ancients who wished to cause their virtue to shine forth first ordered well their
own states. Wishing to order well their states, they first regulated their families.
Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to
cultivate their persons, they first rectified their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in
their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of
knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, their
knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were
sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts
being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their
families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their states were rightly
governed. Their states being rightly governed, the whole kingdom was made tranquil
and happy.
Most of what we know about Confucius comes from the Four Books.
1. The Analects. This is a collection of saying and quotes. Not all can be ascribed to
Confucius.
2. The Great Learning. This concerns itself with the education of gentlemen.
3. The Doctrine of the Mean. This presents the philosophical presuppositions of Confucian
Theology. Deals with the relation of human nature to the underlying moral order of the
universe.
4. The Book of Mencius. A selected collection of writings and saying from the earliest
disciples of Confucius.
Scriptures to consider when dealing with Confucianism:



Transcendence of God. (Isaiah 55:9)
Sin nature of Man. (I Corinthians 15:22, Romans 3:23, John 3:19, Jeremiah 17:9)
Ancestral worship. (Hebrews 9:27, Exodus 39:14, Matthew 4:10)
Ancient China
As is common in any culture, Chinese viewed their country as the center of the world. This was
easily done since the earth was thought of as a flat disc. In fact, the further from their emperor’s
palace one went, the less civilized and advanced the society was thought to be. This assumption
was not entirely untrue.
History records for us that the Chinese culture was the first to begin fertilizing their crops,
publish a medical journal, manufacture paper, printing, gun-powder, the magnetic compass, and
porcelain. Education, too, was advancing. Ancient Chinese had one of the most thorough
theories of evolution in mythology. They proposed a materialist system in which order came
from chaos. The supposed sequence of their evolution progressed from the simplest plants
upward through grubs, insects, birds, leopards, horses, and men. It is an example of what is
perhaps the oldest and most valiant attempt to explain the world without a Sovereign Creator.
To conclude that Chinese were irreligious, however, would be incorrect. Noss states, “Perhaps
no people have gone to such lengths to keep the good spirits on their side as the Chinese, because
no people have been more afraid of demons.”3 Awed by the order and precision of the universe,
they held to a “natural piety” when they viewed the dome of stars or growth of their crops. It
was precisely the elements created by God to drive men to Him that birthed their pantheistic
world view.
The Concept of Tao
The now well-known yin-yang, however, was merely an observation, not an operation The
reality of harmony did not explain the reason for harmony. The source of this unity was
attributed to Tao. Literally, Tao means a “way” or “road”.4 According to their thinking, the way
in which the universe runs must have existed before the universe itself did. This all-powerful
cosmic guidance for order became the “way”, or tao. The Tao is good, and overcomes evil in the
long run like water overcomes the hardness of rock.
The sacredness of objects quickly led to earth-worship. Every village in China would have a
mound of dirt thought to be sacred. It was from this mount that the she, or fertility strength of
the region was drawn. Every state and province had a large
mound, on which different ceremonies and earth-worship
took place.
As this ancient religion developed, the earth became less
significant, yielding the spotlight to the heavens. While the
earth contained spirits, the heavens contained great Spirits.
While the earth was yin, the heavens were yang. The
heavens favor because so significant that the emperors took
the name T’ien Tzu, or “son of Heaven”. He was responsible
for offering annual sacrifices for the wrongs of the people at
the Alter of Heaven. Of course, this only increased their
influence and power over the people.
3
4
Noss, 304
Noss, 298.
Many spirits were identified. The good spirits were called shen, while the evil ones were kwei.
Ancient China demonstrates superstition at its best, with magic, Taoist priests, and exorcism
common to this day. Light and daytime were easily
identified with the
Case Study:
good spirit. The
The Reconstruction of a Religion
rooster, with
obvious links to
Those who mistrust religion as a tool
to control the masses have their
morning, became a
greatest fear confirmed in the Chinese
sacred animal.
emperor Chen Tsung (997-1017 AD).
Images of this
He had lost face when he was forced
animal, if placed on
to sign a peace treaty with an invading
top of ones house,
group of nomads of the Kitan Tartars
would assure only
who came pouring over the Great
good spirits would
Wall. When a court official suggested
enter. Even its blood had healing powers, and if smeared
he brazenly fabricate a “revelation
over the heart could heal one from heart trouble.5 Fireworks,
from heaven”, he decided religion
too, helped fend off evil. This was especially important on
would be his political tool.15 In 1008
special days like new years.
a yellow silk scroll was found hanging
There is likely no other place in the world where ancestorworship is more prominent than in the East. Even to this day,
many houses will have a family alter at which the family
with gather for worship. The head of the house sacrificed at
an alter, prayed to the ancients, and always seeks guidance
before making major decisions.
from the roof of the palace. Emperor
Tsung personal oversaw its removal,
and dispatched messengers throughout
the kingdom with the news. From is
heavenly revelation he implemented a
series of religious observances that
were well received by his people.16
Shinto
The religion of Shinto is thought by many to represent a way a life more than it does a set of
doctrines. The word literally means “The Way of the gods”. It is only a Japanese religion, and
begins with a creation myth where the islands of Japan are the first to be formed. The god
multiplied in different ways until there was finally enough to fill nature. Even the leading
families of the country are thought to have descended from some of the lesser deities.
Shinto was very closely aligned with the government. Much power was derived from the
thought that the emperor was actually a living deity. It was only in the 20th century that Japanese
government could truly be said to be secular.
This influential religion had a large part in the participation of Japan and her solders in World
War II. A missionary outlined what he believed to be the eight foundational principles of
Shinto:6
5
Noss 304
15 Noss, 333.
16 Brian E. McKnight, Law and Order in Sung China (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, New York, 1992) 40.








Loyalty
Gratitude
courage
Justice
Truthfulness
Politeness
Reserve
honor
The most honorable Bushido spirit is represented in
an ancient story of “The Forty-seven Ronins”.
These servants of a great lord were noble to the end.
The Shinto gateway is as iconic as a
When their Lord was taken advantage of by a more
church steeple or mosque’s minaret.
powerful man, he attempted to kill him by throwing
a
spear. However, he missed, and was sentenced to
perform hara-kiri. (Also Seppuku-stomach cutting) This was a solemn act of suicide thought to
be honorable, and one that would infer favor on the ones who commits it.7
Having so taken his life, the forty-seven Ronins were honor-bound to avenge him. With trick
and cunning, they captured the lord responsible for their master’s death. He was executed, and
his head offered as a token of their honor. They then waited word from the government that, to
atone for their deeds, they too were to commit suicide. This was done without exception.
6
Christopher Noss, Tahoku, The Scotland of Japan (Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in the
United States: Philadelphia, 1918) 87-88
7
John Noss, 423
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism originated in ancient Persia, currently the country or Iran, and is also known as
Mazdaism. The founder of this faith was Zoroaster, who was born in 660 BC to a virgin, it is
supposed, after a shaft of light visited her.8 Zoroaster received a good education but felt an
inward gnawing from the deepest questions of life. He left home at 20 seeking enlightenment,
and received a vision at thirty years of age on the banks of the Daitya River.9 The archangel
Vohu Mana (Good Thought) ushered him into the presence of God, Ahura-Mazda, and the true
faith was revealed to him. In this revelation he was given four key
commands:

Worship Ahura Mazda

Magnify the archangels

Damn the demons, and

Marry the nearest relative10
The propagation of this new faith was nearly stagnant for ten years, despite
the
earnest teaching and example of Zoroaster. Finally a prince by the name of Vishtaspa was
converted, and evangelism exploded from the courts of the monarch down to the common
people.11
Beliefs
Zoroastrianism is widely seen by secularists as having vast influence on Christianity. Some
would even claim to find its ideas incorporated into the Holy Bible. Though this can be
confidently rejected, Zoroastrianism does agree with Christianity on a transcendent and
benevolent God, the presence of evil, every person’s inner struggle with good and bad, and a
final judgment before God where the wicked are damned to Hell and the righteous sent to
Paradise.
However, this religion is very works based, and teaches salvation through good works, good
thoughts, and good actions.
8
Edward Verstraete, The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics, ed. Ed Hindson and Ergun Caner (Eugene, Oregon:
Harvest House Publishers, 2008) 501.
9
McDowell and Stewart, 357.
10
Verstraete, 501.
11
John Noss, 439
Islam
Although no one knows for sure, most estimates place the Muslim population at almost a quarter
of the world’s population. By anyone’s records, it is the fastest growing and second largest
religion on the earth, with about 1.2 billion already
confessing.
As much as any other religion, Islam is the lasting imprint
of a single life. Mohammad was born in 570 AD.
Christianity had become the official Roman religion about
350 years earlier at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. One
hundred years earlier the last “Western Roman Emperor”,
Julius Nepos, had passed away. He was born in the
thriving commercial city of Mecca. Even at that time,
Mecca was a holy city, due largely to the famous stone
temple called Kaaba.
Mohammad’s father had died before he was born, and his mother passed away when he was only
six. While still in his teens he began to travel on trading journeys into Syria with his uncle.
Though a very young man, he was soon well versed in business, travel, and foreign ways. Soon
he became a merchant himself and did very well. One of the people he worked for was a forty
year old widow named Khadijah. She was impressed with him and had proposed to him within
the year. He was 25.
He become somewhat meditative and began frequenting the caves outside of Mecca, sometime
for several days at a time. At his first revelation, Gabriel appeared unto him and “pressed me so
hard that I could not bear it anymore. He then released me and again asked me to read, and I
replied, ‘I do not know how to read,’ whereupon he caught me again and pressed me a second
time till I could not bear it anymore. He then released me and asked me again to read, but again I
replied, ‘I do not know how to read…’” This was repeated several times before he was allowed
to return home. When he did, tradition tells us he went straight to his house, terrified and
confused. He begged his wife to cover him, which she did. Although Muhammad doubted his
own sanity, his wife encouraged him that he was indeed a chosen prophet.12
After this period of serious doubt
and fear, Mohammad began
preaching to his family and
relatives and then to the public at
12
Noss, 962.
large. He though of Islam, which mean “submission”, not as a new religion, but a reviving of the
one true religion that had been forsaken by the Jews and Christians. Due to increasing hardships
and hostilities faced at home, the new prophet moved his growing following to the nearby town
of Medina. Here he struggled with the complications of blending two cultures and peoples.
Soon, old traditions of loyalty began to fade, and religious following took precedence over
family and culture.
This was a necessary adjustment, for they were soon at war with their neighbors and family
Mecca. Having plundered and
ambushed many of the rich caravans en route to Mecca,
retaliation was inevitable.
Although facing armies that
outnumbered them three to one,
Mohammad’s men were very
disciplined and had drilled hard,
and the first battle was a decisive
victory.
Tensions between Mecca and Medina continued to escalate. In Mecca, all Muslims had their property
confiscated. In Medina, Mohammad was busy building alliances with neighboring tribes. Two major
attempts were made against the Muslims just one year apart. During the second of these, in 627, Medina
was strongly fortified behind a huge trench. Sieges on an oasis are notoriously unsuccessful, and the
Meccans predictably lost heart and went home.
Life was not that easy for the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe that predated the
Muslims. Convinced of their disloyalty, nearly all men were beheaded.
Mohammad noted that this sentence was “similar to the judgment of God”.
By 630, the Muslims had acquired enough military force to return to Mecca.
Facing his 10,000+ well trained men, the city of Mecca surrendered to
Mohammad without a fight.
Muslims Beliefs
Here is a summary of Muslim beliefs compiled by Matthew Slick (carm.org):
Term
Afterlife
Angels
Atonement
Christianity
Islam
Christians will be with the Lord in heaven (Phil. 1:21-24), in There is an afterlife (75:12) experienced as either an ideal
our resurrected bodies (1 Cor. 15:50-58). Non-Christians
life of Paradise (29:64), for faithful Muslims or Hell for
will be cast into hell forever (Matt. 25:46).
those who are not.
Created beings, non-human, some of which, fell into sin and
became evil. They are very powerful. The unfallen angels
carry out the will of God.
Created beings without free will that serve God. Angels
were created from light.
The sacrifice of Christ on the cross (1 Pet. 2:24) whereby His There is no atonement work in Islam other than a sincere
blood becomes the sacrifice that turns away the wrath of God confession of sin and repentance by the sinner.
(1 John 2:2) from the sinner when the sinner receives (John
1:12), by faith (Rom. 5:1), the work of Christ on the cross.
Bible
The inspired and inerrant word of God and preserved forever Respected word of the prophets but the Bible has been
on earth. (2 Tim. 3:16).
corrupted through the centuries and is only correct in so far
as it agrees with the Koran.
Crucifixion
The place where Jesus atoned for the sins of the world. It is Jesus did not die on the cross. Instead, God allowed Judas
only through this sacrifice that anyone can be saved from the to look like Jesus and he was crucified instead.
wrath of God (1 Pet. 2:24).
A fallen Angel who opposes God in all ways. He also seeks
to destroy humanity (Isaiah 14:12-15; Ezek. 28:13-15).
Iblis, a fallen jinn. Jinn are not angels nor men, but created
beings with free wills. Jinn were created from fire, (2:268;
114:1-6).
God
God is a trinity of persons: Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit. The Trinity is not three gods in one god, nor is it one
person who took three forms. Trinitarianism is strictly
monotheistic. There is no other God in existence.
God is known as Allah. Allah is one person, a strict
unity. There is no other God in existence. He is the creator
of the universe (3:191), sovereign over all (6:61-62).
Heaven (Paradise)
The place where God dwells. Heaven is the eventual home
of the Christians who are saved by God's grace. It is heaven
because it is where God is and Christians will enjoy eternal
Fellowship with Him.
Paradise to Muslims, a place of unimaginable bliss (32:17),
a garden with trees and food (13:35;15:45-48) where the
desires of faithful Muslims are met, (3:133; 9:38; 13:35;
39:34; 43:71; 53:13-15).
A place of torment in fire out of the presence of God. There
is no escape from Hell (Matt. 25:46).
Hell is a place of eternal punishment and torment (14:17;
25:65; 39:26), in fire (104:6-7) for those who are not
Muslims (3:131) as well as those who were and whose
works and faith were not sufficient (14:17; 25:65; 104:6-7).
Third person of the Trinity. The Holy Spirit is fully God in
nature.
The arch-angel Gabriel who delivered the words of the
Koran to Muhammad.
Second person of the Trinity. He is the word who became
flesh (John 1:1, 14). He is both God and man (Col. 2:9).
A very great prophet, second only to Muhammad. Jesus is
not the son of God (9:30) and certainly is not divine (5:17,
75)) and he was not crucified (4:157).
Occurs at the second coming of Christ.
Occurs on the day of resurrection where God will judge all
people. Muslims go to paradise (3:142, 183-185, 198). All
others to hell (3:196-197). Judgment is based on a person's
Devil
Hell
Holy Spirit
Jesus
Judgment Day
deeds (5:9; 42:26; 8:29).
Koran, The
Man
Muhammad
The work of Muhammad. It is not inspired, nor is it
scripture. There is no verification for its accurate
transmission from the originals.
The final revelation of God to all of mankind given through
the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad over a 23 year
period. It is without error and guarded from error by Allah.
Made in the image of God (Gen. 1:26). This does not mean
that God has a body, but that man is made like God in
abilities (reason, faith, love, etc.).
Not made in the image of God (42:11). Man is made out of
the dust of the earth (23:12) and Allah breathed life into
man (32:9; 15:29).
A non-inspired man born in 570 in Mecca who started the
Islamic religion.
The last and greatest of all prophets of Allah whose Qur'an
is the greatest of all inspired books.
Original Sin
This is a term used to describe the effect of Adam's sin on his There is no original sin. All people are sinless until they
descendants (Rom. 5:12-23). Specifically, it is our
rebel against God. They do not have sinful natures.
inheritance of a sinful nature from Adam. The sinful nature
originated with Adam and is passed down from parent to
child. We are by nature children of wrath (Eph. 2:3).
Resurrection
Bodily resurrection of all people, non-Christians to
damnation and Christians are resurrected to eternal life (1
Cor. 15:50-58).
Bodily resurrection, some to heaven, some to hell (3:77;
15:25;75:36-40; 22:6).
A free gift of God (Eph. 2:8-9) to the person who trusts in
Christ and His sacrifice on the cross. He is our mediator (1
Tim. 2:5). No works are sufficient in any way to merit
salvation since our works are all unacceptable to God (Isaiah
64:6).
Forgiveness of sins is obtained by Allah's grace without a
mediator. The Muslim must believe Allah exists, believe in
the fundamental doctrines of Islam, believe that Muhammad
is his prophet, and follow the commands of Allah given in
the Koran.
Salvation
Son of God
A term used to designate that Jesus is divine though he is not A literal son of God. Therefore, Jesus cannot be the son of
the literal son of God in a physical sense (John 5:18).
Allah.
Word, The
"In the beginning was the word and the word was with God
and the word was God...and the word became flesh and
dwelt among us..." (John 1:1, 14).
Allah's command of existence which resulted in Jesus being
formed in the womb of Mary.
The Five Pillars of Islam
The practice of Islam is built on five “sacraments” or religious observances. The faithful
execution of these is what qualifies someone for Allah’s “grace”. They are believed to be the
most important tenants of their belief.
Shahada: Testimony of faith
The declaration that “There is not God but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet” This is not
only said at the time of conversion but is a daily catechism for the faithful.
Salat: Prayer
For a Muslim, prayer is more than a petition. Fives time a day all work, business, travel, or
education are temporarily delayed for a time of prayer. Though mosques are open for these
prayer times, many will pray where they are. If living in a
Muslim community, one would hear the muezzin, or announcer
of prayer giving direction to his fellow worshiper from tall
towers that may or may not be connected with a mosque. Friday
is the Day of Prayer, involving public gathering and is so to
distinguish it from Jewish and Christian faiths.
Zakat: Alms
This is a compulsory tribute to Allah of 2.5% of their annual income which is given to needy
Muslims. Zakat means “purity” or “growth”. However, the purification is not
one of the person but his possessions. It is not the worshiper, but the “rest of
the money” that has been purified. Horrific punishment awaits at the Day of
Judgment for those who do not yield.
Sawm: Fast
Perhaps the best known Muslim practice is the yearly fast that occurs in the
month of Ramadan. Due to their lunar calendar, this month will fall on every
season throughout ones life time. It is done in memory of the revelation of the
Koran and to give a greater appreciate for those less fortunate.
Hajj: Pilgrimage
At least once in every believer’s lifetime, every Muslim is expected to journey to Mecca during
the last month of the year, Dhu al-Hijjah. This is said by some to be the most meritorious form
of jihad, or struggle. For others, a six pillar of physical jihad, or conversion by the sword, is
added to these five pillars.
Islam in the World Today
There is no other religious that merits the focus and study of Christians today than Islam.
Country
Population
% Muslim
Afghanistan
30,000,000
99
Algeria
33,000,000
99
144,000,000
88
Egypt
78,000,000
91
Ethiopia
73,000,000
48
Bangladesh
Indonesia
241,000,000
88
9,000,000
85
Iran
68,000,000
99
Iraq
26,000,000
97
Jordan
6,000,000
95
Kuwait
2,000,000
85
Lebanon
4,000,000
70
Libya
6,000,000
97
Malaysia
24,000,000
60
Mali
12,000,000
90
3,000,000
99.9
Morocco
33,000,000
99
Niger
12,000,000
90
129,000,000
50
3,000,000
99
162,000,000
96
Saudi Arabia
26,000,000
100
Senegal
11,000,000
94
Sierra Leone
6,000,000
60
Somalia
9,000,000
100
Somaliland
8,000,000
100
18,000,000
88
7,000,000
95
Tunisia
10,000,000
99
Turkey
70,000,000
99
Turkmenistan
5,000,000
89
United Arab
Emirates
3,000,000
76
Guinea
Mauritania
Nigeria
Oman
Pakistan
Syria
Tajikistan
Uzbekistan
24,000,000
88
Yemem
21,000,000
99.5
1,316,000,000
88.6
Modern Trends in Islam
In his recent work, The Future of Political Islam, Graham E. Fuller breaks contemporary Islam
into three primary groups.
Modernist Muslims place the greatest emphasis on allegorical interpretation of the Koran and the
traditions. They consider the historical settings and try to apply general principles instead of
literal interpretations. Although the term is avoided, this would be most akin to liberals in the
West.
Moderate Muslims, instead of beginning with modern society and working toward to Koran,
begin with the Koran and work toward modern society. They are not averse to opinions and
dissent but do not wish to lose their historical moorings. They look at contemporary Christians
in the West as an illustration of what happens when a religion ceases to counter the current of
moral decadence.
Traditionalists, possibly the most familiar group within Islam, accept their faith de facto as it has
evolved historically in each local culture. Other faiths, especially local ones, can be tolerated as
long as they are not poly-theistic in nature. This group can be imagined as trying to hold the lid
on change, while not always opposed to new developments when necessary to keep Islam alive.
Fundamentalists represent the most conservative element among Islamists. They oppose not only
all other religions but also stand against any leftward-leaning Muslims. They see their scriptures
as literally written for all time. This literalism causes them to strictly adhere to all rules of faith
and strive for the establishment of an Islamic state. Within Islam, they are sometimes referred to
as “revivalists”.