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Twenty First Century Biology
Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
This document compares the specification learning outcomes from the legacy GCSE Twenty
first century Biology qualification to the new GCSE (9-1) in Twenty first century Biology. It
shows where the statements in the old specification are covered in the new spec, indicates
where they are no longer assessed and highlights where new content has been added.
Spec
Ref
Original spec statement (21C
current spec)
Spec Ref
B1.1.1
recall that instructions to control
how an organism develops and
functions are found in the
nucleus of its cells and are
called genes
B1.1.1
B1.1.5
B1.1.2
recall that genes are instructions
for a cell that describe how to
make proteins
B1.1.6
B1.1.3
recall that proteins may be
structural (e.g. collagen) or
functional (e.g. enzymes such
as amylase)
B1.1.6
B1.1.4
recall that genes are sections of
very long DNA molecules that
make up chromosomes in the
nuclei of cells
understand that some
characteristics are determined
by genes (e.g. dimples), some
are determined by
environmental factors (e.g.
scars), and some are
determined by a combination of
genes and the environment (e.g.
weight)
B1.1.5
B1.1.5
B1.1.6
B1.2.1
B1.1.2
B1.1.4
understand that many
characteristics are determined
by several genes working
together (e.g. eye colour)
B1.2.6
recall that body cells contain
pairs of chromosomes and that
sex cells contain only one
chromosome from each pair
B1.2.8
tick if no
longer
covered
Spec statement equivalent (reformed
21C spec)
a) explain how the nucleus and genetic
material of eukaryotic cells (plants and
animals) and the genetic material,
including plasmids, of prokaryotic cells
are related to cell functions b) describe
how to use a light microscope to observe
a variety of plant and animal cells
explain the terms chromosome, gene,
allele, variant, genotype
and phenotype
explain the importance of amino acids in
the synthesis of proteins, including the
genome as instructions for the
polymerisation of amino acids to make
proteins
explain the importance of amino acids in
the synthesis of proteins, including the
genome as instructions for the
polymerisation of amino acids to make
proteins
explain the terms chromosome, gene,
allele, variant, genotype and phenotype

describe the genome as the entire
genetic material of an organism
describe simply how the genome and its
interaction with the environment influence
the development of the phenotype of an
organism, including the idea that most
characteristics depend on instructions in
the genome and are modified by
interaction of the organism with its
environment.
recall that most phenotypic features are
the result of multiple genes rather than
single gene inheritance NOTE: learners
are not expected to describe epistasis
and its effects
describe sex determination in humans
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Page 1 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B1.2.2
understand that chromosomes
in a pair carry the same genes in
the same place, but that there
may be different versions of
genes called alleles
B1.1.5
explain the terms chromosome, gene,
allele, variant, genotype and phenotype
B1.2.3
recall that an individual usually
has two alleles for each gene
B1.2.2
explain single gene inheritance, including
dominant and recessive alleles and use
of genetic diagrams
recall that in an individual the
two alleles of each gene can be
the same (homozygous) or
different (heterozygous)
B1.2.1
understand that during sexual
reproduction genes from both
parents come together and
produce variation in the offspring
NA
understand that offspring have
some similarities to their parents
because of the combination of
maternal and paternal alleles in
the fertilised egg
understand that different
offspring from the same parents
can differ from each other
because they inherit a different
combination of maternal and
paternal alleles
B1.2.2
understand that an allele can be
dominant or recessive, and that:
a. an individual with one or both
dominant alleles (in a pair of
alleles) will show the associated
dominant characteristic b. an
individual with one recessive
allele (in a pair of alleles) will not
show the associated recessive
characteristic c. an individual
with both recessive alleles (in a
pair of alleles) will show the
associated recessive
characteristic
B1.2.2
B1.2.4
B1.2.5
B1.2.6
B1.2.9
recall that human males have
XY sex chromosomes and
females have XX sex
chromosomes
B1.2.8
describe sex determination in humans
B1.2.10
understand that the sexdetermining gene on the Y
chromosome triggers the
development of testes, and that
in the absence of a Y
chromosome ovaries develop
use and interpret genetic
diagrams (family trees and
Punnett squares) showing: a.
the inheritance of single gene
characteristics with a dominant
and recessive allele b. the
inheritance of sex chromosomes
B1.2.8
describe sex determination in humans
B1.2.4
B1.2.5
B1.2.6
B1.2.7
B1.2.8
B1.2.11

explain the terms gamete, homozygous,
heterozygous, dominant and recessive

NA

B1.2.3
explain single gene inheritance, including
dominant and recessive alleles and use
of genetic diagrams

predict the results of single gene crosses

explain single gene inheritance, including
dominant and recessive alleles and use
of genetic diagrams
use direct proportions and simple ratios
in genetic crosses
use the concept of probability in
predicting the outcome of genetic crosses
recall that most phenotypic features are
the result of multiple genes rather than
single gene inheritance


B1.2.2
explain single gene inheritance, including
dominant and recessive alleles and use
of genetic diagrams
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Twenty First Century Biology
B1.2.12
understand that the term
genotype describes the genetic
make-up of an organism (the
combination of alleles), and the
term phenotype describes the
observable characteristics that
the organism has
B1.1.5
explain the terms chromosome, gene,
allele, variant, genotype and phenotype
B1.3.1
understand that a small number
of disorders are caused by faulty
alleles of a single gene,
including Huntington’s disease
and cystic fibrosis
B1.3.1
recall that disorders may be
caused by dominant alleles (e.g.
Huntington’s disease) or
recessive alleles (e.g. cystic
fibrosis)
NA
discuss the potential importance for
medicine of our increasing understanding
of the human genome, including the
discovery of alleles associated with
diseases and the genetic testing of
individuals to inform family planning and
healthcare
NA
recall the symptoms of
Huntington’s disease and cystic
fibrosis, to include: a.
Huntington’s disease – late
onset, tremor, clumsiness,
memory loss, inability to
concentrate, mood changes b.
cystic fibrosis – thick mucus,
difficulty breathing, chest
infections, difficulty in digesting
food
understand that a person with
one recessive allele (in a pair of
alleles) will not show the
symptoms of the disorder, but is
a carrier and can pass the
recessive allele to their children
NA
interpret through genetic
diagrams (family trees and
Punnett squares) the inheritance
of a single gene disorder,
including the risk of a child being
a carrier
describe uses of genetic testing
for screening adults, children
and embryos, limited to: a.
testing embryos for embryo
selection (pre-implantation
genetic diagnosis) b. predictive
testing for genetic diseases c.
testing an individual before
prescribing drugs
B1.2.3
B1.2.4
B1.2.5
predict the results of single gene crosses
use direct proportions and simple ratios
in genetic crosses
use the concept of probability in
predicting the outcome of genetic crosses
B1.3.1
discuss the potential importance for
medicine of our increasing understanding
of the human genome, including the
discovery of alleles associated with
diseases and the genetic testing of
individuals to inform family planning and
healthcare
B1.3.2
B1.3.3
B1.3.4
B1.3.5
B1.3.6


NA

NA
NA

Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Page 3 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B1.3.7
B1.3.8
B1.3.9
B1.4.1
B1.4.2
B1.4.3
B1.4.4
B1.4.5
B1.4.6
B1.4.7
understand that testing adults
and fetuses for alleles that
cause genetic disorders has
implications that need to be
considered, including: a. risk of
miscarriage as a result of cell
sampling for the genetic test b.
using results that may not be
accurate, including false
positives and false negatives c.
whether or not to have children
at all d. whether or not a
pregnancy should be terminated
e. whether other members of the
family should be informed
understand the implications of
testing embryos for embryo
selection prior to implantation
B1.3.4
understand the implications of
the use of genetic testing by
others (for example, for genetic
screening programmes by
employers and insurance
companies)
understand that bacteria, plants
and some animals can
reproduce asexually to form
clones (individuals with identical
genes)
understand that any differences
between clones are likely to be
due only to environmental
factors
understand that clones of plants
occur naturally when plants
produce bulbs or runners
understand that clones of
animals occur: a. naturally,
when cells of an embryo
separate (identical twins) b.
artificially, when the nucleus
from an adult body cell is
transferred to an empty
unfertilised egg cell
understand that there are
different types of stem cells: a.
adult stem cells which are
unspecialised cells that can
develop into many, but not all,
types of cells b. embryonic stem
cells which are unspecialised
cells that can develop into any
type of cell
understand that, as a result of
being unspecialised, stem cells
from embryos and adults offer
the potential to treat some
illnesses
understand that the majority of
cells of multicellular organisms
become specialised during the
early development of the
organism
NA
explain some of the possible benefits and
risks, including practical and ethical
considerations, of using gene technology
in modern agriculture and medicine

B1.3.4
explain some of the possible benefits and
risks, including practical and ethical
considerations, of using gene technology
in modern agriculture and medicine
NA


NA
NA

NA
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA


B4.3.4
describe the function of stem cells in
embryonic and adult animals and
meristems in plants

B4.3.5
B4.3.5
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
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Twenty First Century Biology
B2.1.1
B2.1.2
B2.1.3
B2.1.4
understand that symptoms of an
infectious disease are caused by
damage done to cells by
microorganisms or the poisons
(toxins) they produce
understand why, in suitable
conditions such as those inside
a human body, microorganisms
(e.g. bacteria and viruses) can
reproduce rapidly to produce
very large numbers
calculate the population growth
of microorganisms given
appropriate data
NA

NA

B2.4.3
calculate cross-sectional areas of
bacterial cultures and of clear zones
around antibiotic discs on agar jelly using
πr2 M5c PAG7
understand that white blood
cells are part of the body’s
immune system and can destroy
microorganisms by engulfing
and digesting them or by
producing antibodies
understand that antibodies
recognise microorganisms by
the antigens that they carry on
their surface, that different
microorganisms have different
antigens, and that a different
antibody is therefore needed to
recognise each different type of
microorganism
B2.2.5
explain how white blood cells are
adapted to their functions in the blood,
including what they do and how it helps
protect against disease
B2.2.4
explain the role of the immune system of
the human body in defence against
disease
understand that once the body
has made the antibody to
recognise a particular
microorganism, memory cells
can make that antibody again
very quickly, therefore protecting
against that particular
microorganism in the future
(immunity)
understand that vaccinations
provide protection from
microorganisms by establishing
memory cells that produce
antibodies quickly on reinfection
B2.2.4
B2.2.2
understand that a vaccine
usually contains a safe form of a
disease-causing microorganism
B2.3.2
B2.2.3
understand why, to prevent
epidemics of infectious
diseases, it is necessary to
vaccinate a high percentage of a
population
B2.3.2
B2.2.4
understand that vaccines and
drugs (medicines) can never be
completely risk-free, since
individuals have varying degrees
of side effects to them
B2.3.2
B2.1.5
B2.1.6
B2.2.1


explain the role of the immune system of
the human body in defence against
disease

B2.2.4
B2.3.2
explain the role of the immune system of
the human body in defence against
disease
explain the use of vaccines in the
prevention of disease, including the use
of safe forms of pathogens and the need
to vaccinate a large proportion of the
population
explain the use of vaccines in the
prevention of disease, including the use
of safe forms of pathogens and the need
to vaccinate a large proportion of the
population
explain the use of vaccines in the
prevention of disease, including the use
of safe forms of pathogens and the need
to vaccinate a large proportion of the
population
explain the use of vaccines in the
prevention of disease, including the use
of safe forms of pathogens and the need
to vaccinate a large proportion of the
population
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Twenty First Century Biology
B2.2.5
understand that due to genetic
differences, people react
differently to drugs and vaccines
B1.3.1
discuss the potential importance for
medicine of our increasing understanding
of the human genome, including the
discovery of alleles associated with
diseases and the genetic testing of
individuals to inform family planning and
healthcare
B2.2.6
understand that chemicals
called antimicrobials can be
used to kill, or inhibit, bacteria,
fungi and viruses
B2.6.1
explain the use of medicines, including
antibiotics, in the treatment of disease
B2.2.7
recall that antibiotics are a type
of antimicrobial that are effective
against bacteria but not viruses
B2.6.1
explain the use of medicines, including
antibiotics, in the treatment of disease
understand that over a period of
time bacteria and fungi may
become resistant to
antimicrobials
B2.6.1
B2.2.9
understand that random
changes (mutations) in the
genes of these microorganisms
sometimes lead to varieties
which are less affected by
antimicrobials
B1.1.10
B1.1.11
B1.1.12
B6.1.9
B2.2.10
understand that to reduce
antibiotic resistance we should
only use antibiotics when
necessary and always complete
the course
B6.1.9
understand that new drugs and
vaccines are first tested for
safety and effectiveness using
animals and human cells grown
in the laboratory
B2.6.4
B2.2.12
recall that human trials may then
be carried out: a. on healthy
volunteers to test for safety b. on
people with the illness to test for
safety and effectiveness
B2.6.4
describe the process of discovery and
development of potential new medicines
including preclinical and clinical testing
B2.2.13
describe and explain the use of
‘open-label’, ‘blind’ and ‘doubleblind’ human trials in the testing
of a new medical treatment
understand the importance of
long-term human trials
B2.6.4
describe the process of discovery and
development of potential new medicines
including preclinical and clinical testing
B2.6.4
describe the process of discovery and
development of potential new medicines
including preclinical and clinical testing

understand the ethical issues
related to using placebos in
human trials
B2.6.4
describe the process of discovery and
development of potential new medicines
including preclinical and clinical testing

B2.2.8
B2.2.11
B2.2.14
B2.2.15

explain the use of medicines, including
antibiotics, in the treatment of disease

recall that all genetic variants arise from
mutations (separate science only)
describe how genetic variants in coding
DNA may influence phenotype by altering
the activity of a protein (separate science
only)
describe how genetic variants in noncoding DNA may influence phenotype by
altering how genes are expressed
(separate science only)
describe modern examples of evidence
for evolution including antibiotic
resistance in bacteria
describe modern examples of evidence
for evolution including antibiotic
resistance in bacteria

describe the process of discovery and
development of potential new medicines
including preclinical and clinical testing

Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Twenty First Century Biology
B2.3.1
describe the role of the heart as
a double pump in the circulatory
system
B5.1.3
B5.1.4
describe the human circulatory system,
including its relationships with the
gaseous exchange system, the digestive
system and the excretory system
explain how the structure of the heart is
adapted to its function, including cardiac
muscle, chambers and valves
B2.3.2
understand why heart muscle
cells need their own blood
supply
B5.1.4
explain how the structure of the heart is
adapted to its function, including cardiac
muscle, chambers and valves
B2.3.3
understand how the structure of
arteries, veins and capillaries is
related to their function
B5.1.5
explain how the structures of arteries,
veins and capillaries are adapted to their
functions, including differences in the
vessel walls and the presence of valves
B2.3.4
understand that heart rate can
be measured by recording the
pulse rate
B2.5.1b)
b) describe how to practically investigate
the effect of exercise on pulse rate and
recovery rate
B2.3.5
understand that blood pressure
measurements record the
pressure of the blood on the
walls of the artery
NA
understand that a blood
pressure measurement is given
as two numbers, the higher
value when the heart is
contracting and the lower value
when the heart is relaxed
NA
understand that ‘normal’
measurements for factors such
as heart rate and blood pressure
are given within a range
because individuals vary
NA
understand how fatty deposits in
the blood vessels supplying the
heart muscle can produce a
‘heart attack’
NA
understand that heart disease is
usually caused by lifestyle
factors and/or genetic factors
B2.5.1
B2.3.6
B2.3.7
B2.3.8
B2.3.9

NA

NA

NA

NA

a) describe how the interaction of genetic
and lifestyle factors can increase or
decrease the risk of developing noncommunicable human diseases,
including cardiovascular diseases, many
forms of cancer, some lung and liver
diseases and diseases influenced by
nutrition, including type 2 diabetes
b) describe how to practically investigate
the effect of exercise on pulse rate and
recovery rate PAG6
B2.3.10
understand that lifestyle factors
that can increase the risk of
heart disease include: a. poor
diet b. stress c. cigarette
smoking d. misuse of drugs
B2.5.2
use given data to explain the incidence of
non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global levels with reference
to lifestyle factors, including exercise,
diet, alcohol and smoking
B2.3.11
understand that regular
moderate exercise reduces the
risk of developing heart disease
B2.6.3
evaluate some different treatments for
cardiovascular disease, including lifestyle
changes, medicines and surgery
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Twenty First Century Biology
B2.3.12
B2.3.13
relate differences in lifestyle
factors in the UK and nonindustrialised countries to the
prevalence of heart disease
B2.5.3
in the context of data related to the
causes, spread, effects and treatment of
disease:
a) translate information between
graphical and numerical forms M4a
b) construct and interpret frequency
tables and diagrams, bar charts and
histograms M4a, M4c
c) understand the principles of sampling
as applied to scientific data M2d
d) use a scatter diagram to identify a
correlation between two variables
use given data to explain the incidence of
non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global levels with reference
to lifestyle factors, including exercise,
diet, alcohol and smoking
understand how factors that can
increase the risk of heart
disease are identified via
epidemiological and large scale
genetics studies
B2.5.2
assess levels of heart disease
risk, and actions that could be
taken to reduce risk, when
provided with lifestyle and
genetic data
understand that high blood
pressure increases the risk of
heart disease
B2.6.3
B2.5.2
use given data to explain the incidence of
non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global levels with reference
to lifestyle factors, including exercise,
diet, alcohol and smoking
understand that the misuse of
drugs (e.g. Ecstasy, cannabis,
nicotine and alcohol) can have
an adverse effect on health,
including heart rate and blood
pressure, increasing the risk of a
heart attack
understand that nervous and
hormonal communication
systems are involved in
maintaining a constant internal
environment (homeostasis)
B2.5.2
use given data to explain the incidence of
non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global levels with reference
to lifestyle factors, including exercise,
diet, alcohol and smoking
B5.4.1
explain the importance of maintaining a
constant internal environment in
response to internal and external change
B2.4.2
understand that automatic
control systems throughout the
body maintain a range of factors
at steady levels and that this is
required for cells to function
properly
B5.4.2
B2.4.3
recall that these control systems
have: a. receptors to detect
changes in the environment b.
processing centres to receive
information and coordinate
responses automatically c.
effectors to produce the
response
B5.4.3
a) describe the function of the skin in the
control of body temperature, including
changes to sweating, hair erection and
blood flow
b) describe practical investigations into
temperature control of the body PAG6
(separate science only)
explain the response of the body to
different temperature challenges,
including receptors, processing,
responses and negative feedback
(separate science only)
B2.4.4
understand the principle of
negative feedback
B5.4.3
B2.3.14
B2.3.15
B2.3.16
B2.4.1
evaluate some different treatments for
cardiovascular disease, including lifestyle
changes, medicines and surgery
explain the response of the body to
different temperature challenges,
including receptors, processing,
responses and negative feedback
(separate science only)
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Twenty First Century Biology
B2.4.5
B2.4.6
B2.4.7
B2.4.8
B2.4.9
B2.4.10
B2.4.11
B2.4.12
B2.4.13
B3.1.1
B3.1.2
understand that negative
feedback between the effector
and the receptor of a control
system reverses any changes to
the system’s steady state
understand that a balanced
water level is important for
maintaining the concentration of
cell contents at the correct level
for cell activity
B5.4.3
understand that water levels are
controlled by balancing gains
from drinks, food and respiration
and losses through sweating,
breathing, faeces and the
excretion of urine
B5.4.4
understand that the kidneys play
a vital role in balancing levels of
water, waste and other
chemicals in the blood i
Candidates are not expected to
recall details of kidney structure
B5.4.5
understand that the kidneys
balance water levels by
producing dilute or concentrated
urine as a response to
concentration of blood plasma,
which is affected by external
temperature, exercise level and
intake of fluids and salt
B5.4.5
understand that concentration of
urine is controlled by a hormone
called ADH, which is released
into the bloodstream by the
pituitary gland
understand how ADH secretion
is controlled by negative
feedback
understand that alcohol results
in the production of a greater
volume of more dilute urine, due
to ADH suppression, which can
lead to dehydration and adverse
effects on health
B5.4.6
understand that the drug
Ecstasy results in a smaller
volume of less dilute urine, due
to increased ADH production
NA
understand that a species is a
group of organisms that can
breed together to produce fertile
offspring
understand that adaptation of
living organisms to their
environment increases the
species’ chance of survival by
making it more likely that
individuals will survive to
reproduce
B3.3.4
B5.4.4
B5.4.6
B5.4.7
explain the response of the body to
different temperature challenges,
including receptors, processing,
responses and negative feedback
(separate science only)
explain the effect on cells of osmotic
changes in body fluids NOTE: learners
are not expected to discuss water
potential (separate science only)


explain the effect on cells of osmotic
changes in body fluids NOTE: learners
are not expected to discuss water
potential (separate science only)

describe the function of the kidneys in
maintaining the water balance of the
body, including filtering water and urea
from the blood into kidney tubules then
reabsorbing as much water as required
(separate science only)

describe the function of the kidneys in
maintaining the water balance of the
body, including filtering water and urea
from the blood into kidney tubules then
reabsorbing as much water as required
(separate science only)

describe the effect of ADH on the
permeability of the kidney tubules
(separate science only)

describe the effect of ADH on the
permeability of the kidney tubules
(separate science only)
explain the response of the body to
different osmotic challenges, including
receptors, processing, response, and
negative feedback (separate science
only)

NA

B6.1.3
describe different levels of organisation in
an ecosystem from individual organisms
to the whole ecosystem

explain how evolution occurs through
natural selection of variants that give rise
to phenotypes better suited to their
environment

Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Page 9 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B3.1.3
recall, and recognise when
given relevant data, examples of
how different organisms are
adapted to their environment,
and explain how the adaptations
increase the organism’s chance
of surviving to successfully
reproduce
B3.4.3
understand that living organisms
are dependent on the
environment and other species
for their survival
B3.3.5
understand that there is
competition for resources
between different species of
animals or plants in the same
habitat
relate changes affecting one
species in a food web to the
impact on other species that are
part of the same food web
B6.1.4
explain the interdependence of
living organisms by using food
webs
B3.3.5
B3.3.6
understand that a change in the
environment may cause a
species to become extinct, for
example, if: a. the environmental
conditions change beyond its
ability to adapt b. a new species
that is a competitor, predator or
disease organism of that
species is introduced c. another
species (animal, plant or
microorganism) in its food web
becomes extinct
understand that nearly all
organisms are ultimately
dependent on energy from the
Sun
B6.1.5
B3.4.1
B3.1.10
recall that plants absorb a small
percentage of the Sun’s energy
for the process of
photosynthesis
B3.1.1
B3.1.11
recall that this absorbed energy
is stored in the chemicals which
make up the plants’ cells
B3.1.1
B3.1.4
B3.1.5
B3.1.6
B3.1.7
B3.1.8
B3.1.9
B3.3.4
B3.3.2
in the context of data related to
organisms within a population:
a) calculate arithmetic means M2b, M2f
b) use fractions and percentages M1c
c) plot and draw appropriate graphs
selecting appropriate scales for the axes
d) extract and interpret information from
charts, graphs and tables

explain the importance of
interdependence and competition in a
community

explain the importance of competition in a
community, with regard to natural
selection

describe different levels of organisation in
an ecosystem from individual organisms
to the whole ecosystem

explain the importance of
interdependence and competition in a
community
describe the differences between the
trophic levels of organisms within an
ecosystem
describe evolution as a change in the
inherited characteristics of a population
over a number of generations through a
process of natural selection which may
result in the formation of new species
explain how some abiotic and biotic
factors affect communities, including
environmental conditions, toxic
chemicals, availability of food and other
resources, and the presence of predators
and pathogens
describe photosynthetic organisms as the
main producers of food and therefore
biomass for life on Earth



a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
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Twenty First Century Biology
B3.1.12
B3.1.13
understand that energy is
transferred between organisms
in an ecosystem: a. when
organisms are eaten b. when
dead organisms and waste
materials are fed on by decay
organisms (decomposers and
detritivores)
explain how energy passes out
of a food chain at each stage via
heat, waste products and
uneaten parts, limiting the length
of food chains
B3.3.9
recall that many different substances
cycle through the abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem, including
carbon and water

B3.3.7,
B3.3.8
describe pyramids of biomass and
explain, with examples, how biomass is
lost between the different trophic levels
calculate the efficiency of biomass
transfers between trophic levels and
explain how this affects the number of
organisms at each trophic level
B3.1.14
calculate from given data the
percentage efficiency of energy
transfer at different stages of a
food chain
B3.3.12
calculate the percentage of mass, in the
context of the use and cycling of
substances in ecosystems
B3.1.15
understand how carbon is
recycled through the
environment to include the
processes of combustion,
respiration, photosynthesis and
decomposition
B3.3.9,
B3.3.10
B3.1.16
understand the importance of
the role of microorganisms in the
carbon cycle
understand how nitrogen is
recycled through the
environment in the processes of:
a. nitrogen fixation to form
nitrogen compounds including
nitrates b. conversion of nitrogen
compounds to protein in plants
and animals c. transfer of
nitrogen compounds through
food chains d. excretion, death
and decay of plants and animals
resulting in release of nitrates
into the soil e. uptake of nitrates
by plants f. denitrification i
Foundation tier candidates are
not expected to recall details of
conversion of atmospheric
nitrogen to nitrates, or nitrates to
atmospheric nitrogen
understand the importance of
the role of microorganisms in the
nitrogen cycle, including
decomposition, nitrogen fixation
and denitrification
B3.3.11
recall that many different substances
cycle through the abiotic and biotic
components of an ecosystem, including
carbon and water
explain the importance of the carbon
cycle and the water cycle to living
organisms
explain the role of microorganisms in the
cycling of substances through an
ecosystem
NA
interpret simple diagrams of the
carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle i
Foundation tier candidates are
not expected to recall nitrogen
fixation or denitrification
NA
understand how environmental
change can be measured using
non-living indicators, including
nitrate levels, temperature and
carbon dioxide levels
NA
B3.1.17
B3.1.18
B3.1.19
B3.1.20
B3.3.9

B3.3.11
explain the role of microorganisms in the
cycling of substances through an
ecosystem

NA

NA
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Page 11 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B3.1.21
B3.1.22
B3.2.1
B3.2.2
understand how climate and
environmental change can be
measured using living indicators,
including phytoplankton, lichens
and aquatic river organisms
such as mayfly nymphs
NA
interpret data obtained from
living and non-living indicators to
investigate environmental
change.
NA
recall that life on Earth began
approximately 3500 million
years ago
understand that life on Earth
(including species that are now
extinct) evolved from very
simple living things
NA
NA

NA

B6.1.3
NA

explain how evolution occurs through
natural selection of variants that give rise
to phenotypes better suited to their
environment
B3.2.3
understand that there is
variation between individuals of
the same species and that some
of this variation is genetic so can
be passed on to offspring
B1.1.10
B6.1.1
recall that all genetic variants arise from
mutations
state that there is usually extensive
genetic variation within a population of a
species
B3.2.4
understand that genetic variation
is the result of changes that
occur in genes (mutations)
B6.1.1,
B6.1.2
B3.2.5
understand that mutated genes
in sex cells can be passed on to
offspring and may occasionally
produce new characteristics
B6.1.5
state that there is usually extensive
genetic variation within a population of a
species
recall that genetic variants arise from
mutations, and that most have no effect
on the phenotype, some influence
phenotype and a very few determine
phenotype
describe evolution as a change in the
inherited characteristics of a population
over a number of generations through a
process of natural selection which may
result in the formation of new species
understand the process of
natural selection in terms of the
effects of genetic variation and
competition on survival and
reproduction, leading to an
increase in the number of
individuals displaying beneficial
characteristics in later
generations
describe the similarities and
differences between natural
selection and selective breeding
B6.1.3,
B6.1.4
explain how evolution occurs through
natural selection of variants that give rise
to phenotypes better suited to their
environment
explain the importance of competition in a
community, with regard to natural
selection
B6.1.6
explain the impact of the selective
breeding of food plants and domesticated
animals
B3.2.8
interpret data on changes in a
species in terms of natural
selection
B6.1.8
describe the work of Darwin and Wallace
in the development of the theory of
evolution by natural selection (separate
science only)
B3.2.9
understand how the combined
effect of mutations,
environmental changes, natural
selection and isolation can
produce new species in the
process of evolution
B3.2.6
B3.2.7
B6.1.5
B6.1.10
describe evolution as a change in the
inherited characteristics of a population
over a number of generations through a
process of natural selection which may
result in the formation of a new species
explain the impact of these ideas on
modern biology and society (separate
science only)
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Page 12 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B3.2.10
understand that evidence for
evolution is provided by the
fossil record and from analysis
of similarities and differences in
the DNA of organisms
B6.1.7
describe how fossils provide evidence for
evolution
B3.2.11
understand that Darwin’s theory
of evolution by natural selection
was the result of many
observations and creative
thought and why it is a better
scientific explanation than
Lamarck’s (e.g. fits with
advances in understanding of
genetics, no evidence or
mechanism for inheritance of
acquired characteristics)
B6.1.8
describe the work of Darwin and Wallace
in the development of the theory of
evolution by natural selection (separate
science only)
B3.3.1
understand that organisms are
classified into groups according
to similarities and differences in
characteristics including: a.
physical features (e.g. flowers in
flowering plants and the
skeleton in vertebrates) b. DNA i
Candidates will not be expected
to give examples of
characteristics of particular
taxonomic groups
B6.3.1
describe the impact of developments in
biology on classification systems,
including the use of DNA analysis to
classify organisms
B3.3.2
understand that organisms are
classified at different levels, and
that these levels can be
arranged in an order
progressing from large groups
containing many organisms with
a small number of
characteristics in common (e.g.
kingdom) to smaller groups
containing fewer organisms with
more characteristics in common
(e.g. species) i Candidates will
not be expected to recall the
names of taxa other than
kingdom and species
B6.3.1
describe the impact of developments in
biology on classification systems,
including the use of DNA analysis to
classify organisms
B3.3.3
understand that the
classification of living and fossil
organisms can help to: a. make
sense of the enormous diversity
of organisms on Earth b. show
the evolutionary relationships
between organisms
B6.3.1
describe the impact of developments in
biology on classification systems,
including the use of DNA analysis to
classify organisms
B3.3.4
understand that biodiversity
refers to the variety of life on
Earth including: a. the number of
different species b. the range of
different types of organisms, e.g.
plants, animals and
microorganisms c. the genetic
variation within species
B6.3.1
describe the impact of developments in
biology on classification systems,
including the use of DNA analysis to
classify organisms
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Twenty First Century Biology
B3.3.5
understand why biodiversity is
important for the future
development of food crops and
medicines
B6.4.3,
B6.4.4
B3.3.6
understand that the rate of
extinction of species is
increasing and why this is likely
to be due to human activity
B6.4.1
B3.3.7
understand that maintaining
biodiversity to ensure the
conservation of different species
is one of the keys to
sustainability
understand that sustainability
means meeting the needs of
people today without damaging
the Earth for future generations
B6.4.4
explain some of the benefits and
challenges of maintaining local and
global biodiversity
B6.4.3
understand that large-scale
monoculture crop production is
not sustainable because it does
not maintain biodiversity
B6.4.6
describe and explain how
sustainability can be improved,
for example in the use of
packaging materials, by
considering the materials used,
energy used and pollution
created
understand why it is preferable
to decrease the use of some
materials, including packaging
materials, even when they are
biodegradable, because of: a.
use of energy in their production
and transport b. slow
decomposition in oxygen
deficient landfill sites.
NA
describe some of the biological factors
affecting levels of food security including
increasing human population, changing
diets in wealthier populations, new pests
and pathogens, environmental change,
sustainability and cost of agricultural
inputs
describe and explain some possible
biotechnological and agricultural
solutions, including genetic modification,
to the demands of the growing human
population
NA
understand that the basic
processes of life carried out by
all living things depend on
chemical reactions within cells
that require energy released by
respiration
understand the role of
photosynthesis in making food
molecules and energy available
to living organisms through food
chains
B4.1.2
explain why cellular respiration occurs
continuously in all living cells
B3.1.1
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
B3.3.8
B3.3.9
B3.3.10
B3.3.11
B4.1.1
B4.1.2
describe some of the biological factors
affecting levels of food security including
increasing human population, changing
diets in wealthier populations, new pests
and pathogens, environmental change,
sustainability and cost of agricultural
inputs (separate science only)
explain some of the benefits and
challenges of maintaining local and
global biodiversity
describe both positive and negative
human interactions within ecosystems
and explain their impact on biodiversity


NA
NA

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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.1.3
describe photosynthesis as a
series of chemical reactions that
use energy from sunlight to build
large food molecules in plant
cells and some microorganisms
(e.g. phytoplankton)
B3.1.1
B4.1.4
describe respiration as a series
of chemical reactions that
release energy by breaking
down large food molecules in all
living cells
recall that enzymes are proteins
that speed up chemical
reactions
B4.1.1
B4.1.6
recall that cells make enzymes
according to the instructions
carried in genes
B3.1.3
B4.1.7
understand that molecules have
to be the correct shape to fit into
the active site of the enzyme
(the lock and key model)
B3.1.3
B4.1.5
B3.1.3
B4.1.8
understand that enzymes need
a specific constant temperature
to work at their optimum, and
that they permanently stop
working (denature) if the
temperature is too high
B3.1.3
B4.1.9
explain that enzyme activity at
different temperatures is a
balance between: a. increased
rates of reaction as temperature
increases b. changes to the
active site at higher
temperatures, including
denaturing i Candidates are not
expected to explain why rates of
reaction increase with
temperature
B3.1.3
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.1.10
recall that an enzyme works at
its optimum at a specific pH
B3.1.3
B4.1.11
explain the effect of pH on
enzyme activity in terms of
changes to the shape of the
active site.
B3.1.3
B4.2.1
recall the names of the reactants
and products of photosynthesis,
and use the word equation: light
energy carbon dioxide + water
→ glucose + oxygen
B3.1.1
B4.2.2
recall the formulae of the
reactants and products of
photosynthesis, and use the
symbol equation: light energy
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 +
6O2
B3.1.1
B4.2.3
recall the main stages of
photosynthesis: a. light energy
absorbed by the green chemical
chlorophyll b. energy used to
bring about the reaction
between carbon dioxide and
water to produce glucose (a
sugar) c. oxygen produced as a
waste product
recall that glucose may be: a.
converted into chemicals
needed for growth of plant cells,
for example cellulose, protein
and chlorophyll b. converted into
starch for storage c. used in
respiration to release energy
B3.1.1
recall the structure of a typical
plant cell, limited to chloroplasts,
cell membrane, nucleus,
cytoplasm, mitochondria,
vacuole and cell wall
B3.1.2
B2.2.3
B4.2.4
B4.2.5
B3.1.1
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) explain the mechanism of enzyme
action including the active site, enzyme
specificity and factors affecting the rate of
enzyme-catalysed reactions, including
substrate concentration, temperature and
pH
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of substrate concentration,
temperature and pH on the rate of
enzyme controlled reactions
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
a) describe the process of
photosynthesis, including the inputs and
outputs of the two main stages and the
requirement of light in the first stage, and
describe photosynthesis as an
endothermic process
b) describe practical investigations into
the requirements and products of
photosynthesis
explain how chloroplasts in plant cells are
related to photosynthesis
describe physical plant defences,
including leaf cuticle and cell wall
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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.2.6
understand the functions of the
structures in a typical plant cell
that have a role in
photosynthesis, including: a.
chloroplasts contain chlorophyll
and the enzymes for the
reactions in photosynthesis b.
cell membrane allows gases and
water to pass in and out of the
cell freely while presenting a
barrier to other chemicals c.
nucleus contains DNA which
carries the genetic code for
making enzymes and other
proteins used in the chemical
reactions of photosynthesis d.
cytoplasm where the enzymes
and other proteins are made
recall that minerals taken up by
plant roots are used to make
some chemicals needed by
cells, including nitrogen from
nitrates to make proteins
B3.1.2,
B3.2.3
explain how chloroplasts in plant cells are
related to photosynthesis
explain how the partially-permeable cell
membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic
cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
B3.2.4
explain how water and mineral ions are
taken up by plants, relating the structure
of the root hair cells to their function
understand that diffusion is the
passive overall movement of
molecules from a region of their
higher concentration to a region
of their lower concentration
B3.2.2
B3.2.3
B5.1.2
recall that the movement of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in
and out of leaves during
photosynthesis occurs by
diffusion
B3.2.1
explain how the partially-permeable cell
membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic
cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
explain how water and mineral ions are
taken up by plants, relating the structure
of the root hair cells to their function
explain how the partially-permeable
membranes of animal cells are related to
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
describe some of the substances
transported into and out of photosynthetic
organisms in terms of the requirements of
those organisms, including oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water and mineral ions
B4.2.10
understand that osmosis (a
specific case of diffusion) is the
overall movement of water from
a dilute to a more concentrated
solution through a partially
permeable membrane
B3.2.2
B3.2.3
B5.1.2
B4.2.11
recall that the movement of
water into plant roots occurs by
osmosis
B3.2.2
B3.2.3
B4.2.7
B4.2.8
B4.2.9


explain how the partially-permeable cell
membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic
cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
explain how water and mineral ions are
taken up by plants, relating the structure
of the root hair cells to their function
explain how the partially-permeable
membranes of animal cells are related to
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
explain how the partially-permeable cell
membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic
cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
explain how water and mineral ions are
taken up by plants, relating the structure
of the root hair cells to their function
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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.2.12
understand that active transport
is the overall movement of
chemicals across a cell
membrane requiring energy
from respiration
B3.2.1
B3.2.2
B5.1.2
B4.2.13
recall that active transport is
used in the absorption of nitrates
by plant roots
B3.2.5
B4.2.14
understand that the rate of
photosynthesis may be limited
by: a. temperature b. carbon
dioxide c. light intensity
B3.1.4
B3.1.6
B4.2.15
interpret data on factors limiting
the rate of photosynthesis
B3.1.5
B3.1.7
B4.2.16
describe and explain techniques
used in fieldwork to investigate
the effect of light on plants,
including: a. using a light meter
b. using a quadrat c. using an
identification key
B3.1.5
B3.1.7
describe some of the substances
transported into and out of photosynthetic
organisms in terms of the requirements of
those organisms, including oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water and mineral ions
a) explain how substances are
transported into and out of cells through
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
b) describe practical investigations into
the processes of diffusion and osmosis
explain how the partially-permeable cell
membranes of plant cells and prokaryotic
cells are related to diffusion, osmosis and
active transport
explain how the partially-permeable
membranes of animal cells are related to
diffusion, osmosis and active transport
a) explain how the structure of the xylem
and phloem are adapted to their functions
in the plant
b) describe how to use a light microscope
to observe the structure of the xylem and
phloem
a) explain the effect of temperature, light
intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration on the rate of
photosynthesis
b) describe practical investigations into
the effect of environmental factors on the
rate of photosynthesis PAG5
explain the interaction of temperature,
light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration in limiting the rate of
photosynthesis, and use graphs depicting
the effects
use the inverse square law to explain
changes in the rate of photosynthesis
with distance from a light source.
In the context of the rate of
photosynthesis:
a) understand and use simple compound
measures such as the rate of a reaction
b) translate information between
graphical and numerical form
c) plot and draw appropriate graphs
selecting appropriate scales for axes
d) extract and interpret information from
graphs, charts and tables
use the inverse square law to explain
changes in the rate of photosynthesis
with distance from a light source.
In the context of the rate of
photosynthesis:
a) understand and use simple compound
measures such as the rate of a reaction
b) translate information between
graphical and numerical form
c) plot and draw appropriate graphs
selecting appropriate scales for axes
d) extract and interpret information from
graphs, charts and tables
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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.2.17
understand how to take a
transect
B3.4.2
describe how to carry out a field
investigation into the distribution and
abundance of organisms in an ecosystem
and explain how to determine their
numbers in a given area
B4.3.1
understand that all living
organisms require energy
released by respiration for some
chemical reactions in cells,
including chemical reactions
involved in: a. movement b.
synthesis of large molecules c.
active transport
B3.3.3
B4.1.2
describe some of the substances
transported into organisms in terms of the
requirements of those organisms,
including dissolved food molecules
explain why cellular respiration occurs
continuously in all living cells
B4.3.2
understand that synthesis of
large molecules includes: a.
synthesis of polymers required
by plant cells such as starch and
cellulose from glucose in plant
cells b. synthesis of amino acids
from glucose and nitrates, and
then proteins from amino acids
in plant, animal and microbial
cells
B4.1.2
explain why cellular respiration occurs
continuously in all living cells
B4.3.3
recall that aerobic respiration
takes place in animal and plant
cells and some microorganisms,
and requires oxygen
B4.1.1
B4.3.4
recall the names of the reactants
and products of aerobic
respiration and use the word
equation: glucose + oxygen →
carbon dioxide + water (+
energy released)
B4.1.1
B4.1.4
B4.3.5
recall the formulae of the
reactants and products of
aerobic respiration and use the
symbol equation: C6H12O6 +
6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
recall that anaerobic respiration
takes place in animal, plant and
some microbial cells in
conditions of low oxygen or
absence of oxygen, to include:
a. plant roots in waterlogged soil
b. bacteria in puncture wounds
c. human cells during vigorous
exercise
B4.1.1
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
describe cellular respiration as an
exothermic process
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
explain how mitochondria in eukaryotic
cells (plants and animals) are related to
cellular respiration
B4.3.6
B4.1.1
B4.1.3
B4.3.7
recall the names of the reactants
and products of anaerobic
respiration in animal cells and
some bacteria, and use the word
equation: glucose → lactic acid
(+ energy released)
B4.1.1
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
B4.3.8
recall the names of the reactants
and products of anaerobic
respiration in plant cells and
some microorganisms including
yeast, and use the word
equation: glucose → ethanol +
carbon dioxide (+ energy
released)
B4.1.1
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
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Twenty First Century Biology
B4.3.9
understand that aerobic
respiration releases more
energy per glucose molecule
than anaerobic respiration
B4.1.1
B4.3.10
recall the structure of typical
animal and microbial cells
(bacteria and yeast) limited to: a.
nucleus b. cytoplasm c. cell
membrane d. mitochondria (for
animal and yeast cells) e. cell
wall (for yeast and bacterial
cells) f. circular DNA molecule
(for bacterial cells)
understand the functions of the
structures in animal, plant,
bacteria and yeast cells that
have a role in respiration,
including: a. mitochondria
contain enzymes for the
reactions in aerobic respiration
(in animals, plants and yeast) b.
cell membrane allows gases and
water to pass in and out of the
cell freely while presenting a
barrier to other chemicals c.
nucleus or circular DNA in
bacteria contains DNA which
carries the genetic code for
making enzymes used in the
chemical reactions of respiration
d. cytoplasm where enzymes
are made and which contains
the enzymes used in anaerobic
respiration
B4.2.2
B4.3.11
B4.3.12
B1.1.1a)
B4.1.3

describe examples of the
applications of the anaerobic
respiration of microorganisms,
including the production of
biogas and fermentation in
bread making and alcohol
production
recall that cells in multicellular
organisms can be specialised to
do particular jobs
recall that groups of specialised
cells are called tissues, and
groups of tissues form organs
B4.1.1
B5.1.3
recall that a fertilised egg cell
(zygote) divides by mitosis to
form an embryo
B4.3.1
B4.3.4
B5.1.4
recall that in a human embryo
up to (and including) the eight
cell stage, all the cells are
identical (embryonic stem cells)
and could produce any type of
cell required by the organism
B4.3.1
B5.1.1
B5.1.2
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
in the context of cells and sub-cellular
structures:
a) demonstrate an understanding of
number, size and scale and the
quantitative relationship between units
b) use estimations and explain when they
should be used
c) calculate with numbers written in
standard form
explain how the nucleus and genetic
material of eukaryotic cells (plants and
animals) and the genetic material,
including of plasmids, of prokaryotic cells
are related to cell functions
explain how mitochondria in eukaryotic
cells (plants and animals) are related to
cellular respiration
compare the processes of aerobic and
anaerobic respiration, including
conditions under which they occur, the
inputs and outputs, and comparative
yields of ATP
NA
NA
NA
NA


a) describe the role of the cell cycle in
growth, including interphase and mitosis
b) describe how to use a light
microscope to observe stages of mitosis
PAG1
describe the function of stem cells in
embryonic and adult animals and
meristems in plants
a) describe the role of the cell cycle in
growth, including interphase and mitosis
b) describe how to use a light microscope
to observe stages of mitosis
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Twenty First Century Biology
B5.1.5
understand that after the eight
cell stage, most of the embryo
cells become specialised and
form different types of tissue
understand that some cells
(adult stem cells) remain
unspecialised and can become
specialised at a later stage to
become many, but not all, types
of cell required by the organism
B4.3.5
B5.1.7
understand that in plants, only
cells within special regions
called meristems are mitotically
active
B4.3.4
describe the function of stem cells in
embryonic and adult animals and
meristems in plants
B5.1.8
understand that the new cells
produced from plant meristems
are unspecialised and can
develop into any kind of plant
cell
understand that unspecialised
plant cells can become
specialised to form different
types of tissue (including xylem
and phloem) within organs
(including flowers, leaves, stems
and roots)
understand that the presence of
meristems (as sources of
unspecialised cells) allows the
production of clones of a plant
from cuttings, and that this may
be done to reproduce a plant
with desirable features
B4.3.4
describe the function of stem cells in
embryonic and adult animals and
meristems in plants
B4.3.5
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
B6.2.1
explain some of the advantages and
disadvantages of asexual and sexual
reproduction in a range of organisms
understand that a cut stem from
a plant can develop roots and
then grow into a complete plant
which is a clone of the parent,
and that rooting can be
promoted by the presence of
plant hormones (auxins)
NA
understand that the growth and
development of plants is also
affected by the environment,
e.g. phototropism
B4.4.1
B5.1.13
understand how phototropism
increases the plant’s chance of
survival
B4.4.1
B5.1.14
explain phototropism in terms of
the effect of light on the
distribution of auxin in a shoot
tip.
B4.4.1
B5.1.6
B5.1.9
B5.1.10
B5.1.11
B5.1.12
B4.3.4
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
describe the function of stem cells in
embryonic and adult animals and
meristems in plants


NA

a) explain how plant hormones are
important in the control and coordination
of plant growth and development, with
reference to the role of auxins in
phototropisms and gravitropisms
b) describe practical investigations into
the role of auxin in phototropism
a) explain how plant hormones are
important in the control and coordination
of plant growth and development, with
reference to the role of auxins in
phototropisms and gravitropisms
b) describe practical investigations into
the role of auxin in phototropism
a) explain how plant hormones are
important in the control and coordination
of plant growth and development, with
reference to the role of auxins in
phototropisms and gravitropisms
b) describe practical investigations into
the role of auxin in phototropism
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Twenty First Century Biology
B5.2.1
recall that cell division by mitosis
produces two new cells that are
genetically identical to each
other and to the parent cell
describe the main processes of
the cell cycle: a. cell growth
during which: • numbers of
organelles increase • the
chromosomes are copied when
the two strands of each DNA
molecule separate and new
strands form alongside them b.
mitosis during which: • copies of
the chromosomes separate • the
nucleus divides i Candidates are
not expected to recall
intermediate stages of mitosis
B4.3.1
B5.2.3
recall that meiosis is a type of
cell division that produces
gametes
B4.3.3
explain the role of meiotic cell division in
halving the chromosome number to form
gametes, including the stages of
interphase and two meiotic divisions
B5.2.4
understand why, in meiosis, it is
important that the cells produced
only contain half the
chromosome number of the
parent cell i Candidates are not
expected to recall intermediate
stages of meiosis
understand that a zygote
contains a set of chromosomes
from each parent
B4.3.3
explain the role of meiotic cell division in
halving the chromosome number to form
gametes, including the stages of
interphase and two meiotic divisions
B4.3.3
explain the role of meiotic cell division in
halving the chromosome number to form
gametes, including the stages of
interphase and two meiotic divisions
B5.3.1
recall that DNA has a double
helix structure
B1.1.3
describe DNA as a polymer made up of
nucleotides, forming two strands in a
double helix
B5.3.2
recall that both strands of the
DNA molecule are made up of
four different bases which
always pair up in the same way:
A with T, and C with G
B1.1.7
describe DNA as a polymer made from
four different nucleotides, each
nucleotide consisting of a common sugar
and phosphate group with one of four
different bases attached to the sugar
B5.3.3
understand that the order of
bases in a gene is the genetic
code for the production of a
protein
B1.1.8
explain simply how the sequence of
bases in DNA codes for the proteins
made in protein synthesis, including the
idea that each set of three nucleotides is
the code for an amino acid
B5.3.4
explain how the order of bases
in a gene is the code for building
up amino acids in the correct
order to make a particular
protein i Candidates are not
expected to recall details of
nucleotide structure,
transcription or translation
B1.1.9
recall a simple description of protein
synthesis, in which:
• a copy of a gene is made from
messenger RNA (mRNA)
• the mRNA travels to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
• the ribosome joins amino acids together
in an order determined by the mRNA
NOTE: learners are not expected to recall
details of transcription and translation
(separate science only)
B5.2.2
B5.2.5
B4.3.1
a) describe the role of the cell cycle in
growth, including interphase and mitosis
b) describe how to use a light microscope
to observe stages of mitosis
a) describe the role of the cell cycle in
growth, including interphase and mitosis
b) describe how to use a light microscope
to observe stages of mitosis
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Page 22 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B5.3.5
recall that the genetic code is in
the cell nucleus of animal and
plant cells but proteins are
produced in the cell cytoplasm
B1.1.9
recall a simple description of protein
synthesis, in which:
• a copy of a gene is made from
messenger RNA (mRNA)
• the mRNA travels to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
• the ribosome joins amino acids together
in an order determined by the mRNA
NOTE: learners are not expected to recall
details of transcription and translation
(separate science only)
recall a simple description of protein
synthesis, in which:
• a copy of a gene is made from
messenger RNA (mRNA)
• the mRNA travels to a ribosome in the
cytoplasm
• the ribosome joins amino acids together
in an order determined by the mRNA
NOTE: learners are not expected to recall
details of transcription and translation
(separate science only)
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
B5.3.6
understand that genes do not
leave the nucleus but a copy of
the gene (messenger RNA) is
produced to carry the genetic
code to the cytoplasm
B1.1.9
B5.3.7
understand that although all
body cells in an organism
contain the same genes, many
genes in a particular cell are not
active (switched off) because
the cell only produces the
specific proteins it needs
understand that in specialised
cells only the genes needed for
the cell can be switched on, but
in embryonic stem cells any
gene can be switched on during
development to produce any
type of specialised cell
B4.3.5
B4.3.5
explain the importance of cell
differentiation, in which cells become
specialised by switching genes off and on
to form tissues with particular functions
understand that adult stem cells
and embryonic stem cells have
the potential to produce cells
needed to replace damaged
tissues
understand that ethical
decisions need to be taken
when using embryonic stem
cells and that this work is
subject to Government
regulation
understand that, in carefully
controlled conditions of
mammalian cloning, it is
possible to reactivate (switch on)
inactive genes in the nucleus of
a body cell to form cells of all
tissue types
recall that a stimulus is a change
in the environment of an
organism
understand that simple reflexes
produce rapid involuntary
responses to stimuli
B4.5.1
discuss potential benefits, risks and
ethical issues associated with the use of
stem cells in medicine
B4.5.1
discuss potential benefits, risks and
ethical issues associated with the use of
stem cells in medicine
B4.5.1
discuss potential benefits, risks and
ethical issues associated with the use of
stem cells in medicine
B5.3.8
B5.3.9
B5.3.10
B5.3.11
B6.1.1
B6.1.2
NA
B5.2.3
NA


a) explain how the structure of a reflex
arc, including the relay neuron, is related
to its function
b) describe practical investigations into
reflex actions
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Twenty First Century Biology
B6.1.3
B6.1.4
B6.1.5
B6.1.6
B6.1.7
B6.1.8
B6.1.9
B6.1.10
B6.2.1
B6.2.2
understand that the simplest
animals rely on reflex actions for
the majority of their behaviour
understand that these reflex
actions help to ensure that the
simplest animals respond to a
stimulus in a way that is most
likely to result in their survival, to
include finding food and
sheltering from predators
recall examples of simple
reflexes in humans, to include
newborn reflexes (e.g. stepping,
grasping, sucking), pupil reflex,
knee jerk and dropping a hot
object
understand that nervous coordination, including simple
reflexes, requires: a. receptors
to detect stimuli b. processing
centres to receive information
and coordinate responses c.
effectors to produce the
response
understand that receptors and
effectors can form part of
complex organs, for example: a.
light receptor cells in the retina
of the eye b. hormone secreting
cells in a gland c. muscle cells in
a muscle
understand that nervous
systems use electrical impulses
for fast, short-lived responses
including simple reflexes
NA
NA
NA
NA


NA
NA

B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
B5.2.1
B5.2.2
recall that hormones are
chemicals that are produced in
glands, travel in the blood and
bring about slower, longerlasting responses, e.g. insulin
and oestrogen
recall that the development of
nervous and hormonal
communication systems
depended on the evolution of
multicellular organisms
recall that nervous systems are
made up of neurons (nerve
cells) linking receptor cells (e.g.
in eyes, ears and skin) to
effector cells (in muscles/glands)
B5.5.1
B5.6.1
recall that neurons transmit
electrical impulses when
stimulated
B5.2.1
B5.2.1
B5.2.2

explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the structures of nerve cells
and synapses relate to their functions
NOTE: learners are not expected to
explain nerve impulse transmission in
terms of membrane potentials
describe the role of hormones in human
reproduction, including the control of the
menstrual cycle
explain how insulin controls the blood
sugar level in the body.
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the structures of nerve cells
and synapses relate to their functions
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
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Twenty First Century Biology
B6.2.3
recall that an axon is a long
extension of the cytoplasm in a
neuron and is surrounded by cell
membrane
B5.2.1
understand that some axons are
surrounded by a fatty sheath,
which insulates the neuron from
neighbouring cells and
increases the speed of
transmission of a nerve impulse
recall that in humans and other
vertebrates the central nervous
system (CNS) is made up of the
spinal cord and brain
B5.2.1
recall that in the mammalian
nervous system the CNS (brain
and spinal cord) is connected to
the body via the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) (sensory
and motor neurons)
understand that the CNS
coordinates an animal’s
responses via: a. sensory
neurons carrying impulses from
receptors to the CNS b. motor
neurons carrying impulses from
the CNS to effectors
understand that within the CNS,
impulses are passed from
sensory neurons to motor
neurons through relay neurons
B5.2.1
B6.2.9
describe the nervous pathway of
a spinal reflex arc to include
receptor, sensory neuron, relay
neuron, spinal cord, motor
neuron and effector
B5.2.3
B6.2.10
understand that this
arrangement of neurons into a
fixed pathway allows reflex
responses to be automatic and
so very rapid, since no
processing of information is
required
recall that there are gaps
between adjacent neurons
called synapses and that
impulses are transmitted across
them
understand that at a synapse an
impulse triggers the release of
chemicals (transmitter
substances) from the first
neuron into the synapse, which
diffuse across and bind to
receptor molecules on the
membrane of the next neuron
understand that only specific
chemicals bind to the receptor
molecules, initiating a nerve
impulse in the next neuron
B5.2.3
a) explain how the structure of a reflex
arc, including the relay neuron, is related
to its function
b) describe practical investigations into
reflex actions
B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
B6.2.4
B6.2.5
B6.2.6
B6.2.7
B6.2.8
B6.2.11
B6.2.12
B6.2.13
B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
B5.2.1
explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
a) explain how the structure of a reflex
arc, including the relay neuron, is related
to its function
b) describe practical investigations into
reflex actions
B5.2.1
B5.2.1

explain how the components of the
nervous system work together to enable
it to function, including sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, the CNS, motor
neurons and effectors
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
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Page 25 of 29
Twenty First Century Biology
B6.2.14
B6.2.15
B6.2.16
B6.2.17
B6.2.18
B6.3.1
B6.3.2
B6.3.3
B6.3.4
B6.3.5
B6.4.1
recall that some toxins and
drugs, including Ecstasy, beta
blockers and Prozac, affect the
transmission of impulses across
synapses
understand that Ecstasy
(MDMA) blocks the sites in the
brain’s synapses where the
transmitter substance, serotonin,
is removed
understand that the effects of
Ecstasy on the nervous system
are due to the subsequent
increase in serotonin
concentration
recall that the cerebral cortex is
the part of our brain most
concerned with intelligence,
memory, language and
consciousness
understand that scientists can
map the regions of the brain to
particular functions (including
studies of patients with brain
damage, studies in which
different parts of the brain are
stimulated electrically, and brain
scans such as MRI, showing
brain structure and activity)
understand that a reflex
response to a new stimulus can
be learned by introducing the
secondary (new) stimulus in
association with the primary
stimulus, and that this is called
conditioning
describe and explain two
examples of conditioning,
including Pavlov’s dogs
understand that in a conditioned
reflex the final response (e.g.
salivation) has no direct
connection to the secondary
stimulus (e.g. ringing of a bell)
understand that conditioned
reflexes are a form of simple
learning that can increase an
animal’s chance of survival
recall that in some
circumstances the brain can
modify a reflex response via a
neuron to the motor neuron of
the reflex arc, for example
keeping hold of a hot object
understand that the evolution of
a larger brain gave early
humans a better chance of
survival
NA
NA

NA
NA

NA
NA

B5.2.4
B5.2.4
NA
describe the structure and function of the
brain and roles of the cerebral cortex
(intelligence, memory, language and
consciousness), cerebellum (conscious
movement) and brain stem (regulation of
heart and breathing rate)
describe the structure and function of the
brain and roles of the cerebral cortex
(intelligence, memory, language and
consciousness), cerebellum (conscious
movement) and brain stem (regulation of
heart and breathing rate)
NA

NA
NA
NA
NA


NA
NA

B5.2.3
NA
a) explain how the structure of a reflex
arc, including the relay neuron, is related
to its function
b) describe practical investigations into
reflex actions
NA
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Twenty First Century Biology
B6.4.2
recall that mammals have a
complex brain of billions of
neurons that allows learning by
experience, including social
behaviour
B6.4.3
understand that during
development the interaction
between mammals and their
environment results in neuron
pathways forming in the brain
NA
understand that learning is the
result of experience where: a.
certain pathways in the brain
become more likely to transmit
impulses than others b. new
neuron pathways form and other
neuron pathways are lost
NA
understand that this is why
some skills may be learnt
through repetition
understand that the variety of
potential pathways in the brain
makes it possible for the animal
to adapt to new situations
NA
NA
NA
NA
understand the implications of
evidence suggesting that
children may only acquire some
skills at a particular age, to
include language development
in feral children
describe memory as the storage
and retrieval of information
NA
NA
NA
recall that memory can be
divided into short-term memory
and long-term memory
NA
NA
understand that humans are
more likely to remember
information if: a. they can see a
pattern in it (or impose a pattern
on it) b. there is repetition of the
information, especially over an
extended period of time c. there
is a strong stimulus associated
with it, including colour, light,
smell, or sound
understand how models can be
used to describe memory
(including the multi-store model)
to include short-term memory,
long-term memory, repetition,
storage, retrieval and forgetting
NA
understand that models are
limited in explaining how
memory works
NA
B6.4.4
B6.4.5
B6.4.6
B6.4.7
B6.4.8
B6.4.9
B6.4.10
B6.4.11
B6.4.12
B5.2.4
describe the structure and function of the
brain and roles of the cerebral cortex
(intelligence, memory, language and
consciousness), cerebellum (conscious
movement) and brain stem (regulation of
heart and breathing rate)
NA

NA



NA



NA

NA
NA

NA

New outcomes
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
Author: Michelle Spiller
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Twenty First Century Biology
Spec ref
Spec statement
B1.2.7
describe the development of our understanding of genetics including the work of Mendel and the
modern day use of genome sequencing (separate science only)
B1.3.2
describe genetic engineering as a process which involves modifying the genome of an organism to
introduce desirable characteristics
B1.3.3
describe the main steps in the process of genetic engineering including:
• isolating and replicating the required gene(s)
• putting the gene(s) into a vector (e.g. a plasmid)
• using the vector to insert the gene(s) into cells
• selecting modified cells
B2.1.1
describe the relationship between health and disease
B2.1.2
describe different types of diseases (including communicable and non-communicable diseases)
B2.1.4
B2.1.5
B2.2.1
describe common human infections including influenza (viral), Salmonella (bacterial), Athlete’s foot
(fungal) and malaria (protist) and sexually transmitted infections in humans including HIV/AIDS
(viral)
describe plant diseases including tobacco mosaic virus (viral), ash dieback (fungal) and crown gall
disease (bacterial)
describe non-specific defence systems of the human body against pathogens, including examples of
physical, chemical and microbial defences
B2.2.2
explain how platelets are adapted to their function in the blood
B2.2.6
describe chemical plant defence responses, including antimicrobial substances
B2.4.1
a) describe ways in which diseases, including plant diseases, can be detected and identified, in the
lab and in the field
b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe microorganisms
B2.4.2
describe and explain the aseptic techniques used in culturing organisms
B2.4.4
describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced including the following steps:
• antigen injected into an animal
• antibody-producing cells taken from animal
• cells producing the correct antibody selected then cultured
B2.4.5
describe some of the ways in which monoclonal antibodies can be used in diagnostic tests
B2.5.4
describe interactions between different types of disease
B2.6.2
calculate cross-sectional areas of bacterial cultures and of clear zones around antibiotic discs on
agar jelly using πr2
B2.6.5
B3.2.6
describe how monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer including:
• produce monoclonal antibodies specific to a cancer cell antigen
• inject the antibodies into the blood
• the antibodies bind to cancer cells, tagging them for attack by white blood cells
• the antibodies can also be attached to a radioactive or toxic substance to deliver it to cancer cells
(separate science only)
a) describe the processes of transpiration and translocation, including the structure and function of
the stomata
b) describe how to use a light microscope to observe the structure of stomata PAG1 c) describe
how to use a simple potometer PAG6
B3.2.7
a) explain the effect of a variety of environmental factors on the rate of water uptake by a plant, to
include light intensity, air movement, and temperature
b) describe practical investigations into the effect of environmental factors on the rate of water
uptake by a plant
B3.2.8
in the context of water uptake by plants:
a) use simple compound measures such as rate
b) carry out rate calculations
c) plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs
d) calculate percentage gain and loss of mass
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
Author: Michelle Spiller
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Twenty First Century Biology
B3.3.1
B3.3.13
B3.3.14
a) explain the importance of sugars, fatty acids and glycerol, and amino acids in the synthesis and
breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
b) describe the use of qualitative tests for biological molecules
explain the effect of factors such as temperature and water content on rate of decomposition in
aerobic and anaerobic environments
calculate rate changes in the decay of biological material
B4.2.1
a) describe practical investigations into the effect of different substrates on the rate of respiration in
yeast
b) carry out rate calculations for chemical reactions in the context of cellular respiration
explain how electron microscopy has increased our understanding of sub-cellular structures
B4.3.2
describe cancer as the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division
B4.4.2
describe some of the variety of effects of plant hormones, relating to gibberellins and ethene
B4.4.3
describe some of the different ways in which people use plant hormones to control plant growth
B5.1.1
describe some of the substances transported into and out of the human body in terms of the
requirements of cells, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, dissolved food molecules and urea
B5.1.2
explain how the partially-permeable cell membranes of animal cells are related to diffusion, osmosis
and active transport
B5.1.6
explain how red blood cells and plasma are adapted to their functions in the blood
B5.1.7
explain the need for exchange surfaces and a transport system in multicellular organisms in terms of
surface area:volume ratio
B5.1.8
calculate surface area:volume ratios
B5.2.5
explain some of the difficulties of investigating brain function
B5.3.1
describe the principles of hormonal coordination and control by the human endocrine system
B5.3.2
explain the roles of thyroxine and adrenaline in the body, including thyroxine as an example of a
negative feedback system
B4.1.5
B5.4.8
B5.5.2
in the context of maintaining a constant internal environment:
a) extract and interpret data from graphs, charts and tables M2c
b) translate information between numerical and graphical forms M4a
explain the interactions of FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone in the control of the menstrual
cycle
B5.5.3
explain the use of hormones in contraception and evaluate hormonal and non-hormonal methods of
contraception
B5.5.4
explain the use of hormones in modern reproductive technologies to treat infertility
B5.6.2
explain how glucagon and insulin work together to control the blood sugar level in the body
B5.6.3
compare type 1 and type 2 diabetes and explain how they can be treated
B5.6.4
B5.6.5
a) explain how the main structures of the eye are related to their functions, including the cornea, iris,
lens, ciliary muscle and retina and to include the use of ray diagrams
b) describe practical investigations into the response of the pupil in different light conditions
describe common defects of the eye, including short sightedness, long-sightedness and cataracts,
and explain how these problems may be overcome, including using ray diagrams to illustrate the
effect of lenses
B5.6.6
explain some of the limitations in treating damage and disease in the brain and other parts of the
nervous system (separate science only)
B6.1.9
describe modern examples of evidence for evolution including antibiotic resistance in bacteria
B6.4.2
evaluate evidence for the impact of environmental changes on the distribution of organisms, with
reference to water and atmospheric gases
B6.4.5
extract and interpret information related to biodiversity from charts, graphs and tables
Twenty First Century Biology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
Author: Michelle Spiller
Please recycle this paper responsibly
Page 29 of 29