Download Unit VII: Cognition

Unit VII: Cognition
Unit VII Modules Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Module 32: Memory Storage & Retrieval
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, &
Memory Improvement
Module 34: Thinking, Concepts, & Creativity
Module 35: Problem Solving & Making Decisions
Module 36: Thinking & Language
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Define Memory.!
31-1: What is Memory?
Memory learning that has persisted over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
Learning and Memory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=27ZsQ9PjSW0
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Explain the human memory system.!
31-2: The Human Memory System
Human memory is an information-processing system – to remember any event, humans must:
Encode: the processing of information into the memory system (getting information into the brain)
Storage: the process of retaining information over time
Retrieval: the process of accessing information from storage
The human brain employs Parallel Processing: the processing of many streams of information simultaneously
The 3 Stages of Memory:
Sensory Memory: immediate recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-Term Memory: memory that hold a limited amount of information (about 7 items) for a limited
duration of time (20 seconds) before the info is stored or forgotten
Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (knowledge,
skills, & experiences)
BBC – How Does Memory Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Qi3_bR5Sw0
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Explain the human memory system.
!
!
(maintenance rehearsal)
WM
(STM)
SM
Sensory Input
Encoding
LTM
Attention
Retrieval
lost if not paid
attention to
lost if not
rehearsed
may lose some
over time?
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Explicit and implicit memories.!
31-3: Building Memories
The human brain operates on 2 tracks: a conscious track and a nonconscious track – some memories are
products of effortful processing and some memories are products of automatic processing
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): memory of facts and experiences that can consciously be recalled –
explicit memories are encoded through conscious processing
Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory): retention of information without conscious recollection
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Identify the information processed implicitly.!
31-4: Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories
Implicit memories include procedural memory for automatic skills – information that is automatically
processed includes
Space – enables us to visualize where things are
Time – enables us to retrace what we’ve done at specific times
Frequency – enables us to remember how many times things happen
Automatic processing frees the human brain up to focus on things that require effortful processing – tasks that
require conscious effort at first in time require less effort
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Explain how sensory memory works.!
31-5: Sensory Memory
Sensory memory feeds working memory
Iconic Memory: momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
Echoic Memory: momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Describe the capacity of short-term and working memory.!
31-6: Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory
Working memory is limited in capacity to about 7 bits of information
only about 50% of verbal information can be recalled after 3 seconds without active rehearsal
after 12 seconds only about 10% of verbal information can be recalled with no active rehearsal
Psychology Professor Peter Doolittle –
http://www.ted.com/talks/peter_doolittle_how_your_working_memory_makes_sense_of_the_world
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Describe effortful processing strategies to remember new information.!
31-7: Processing Strategies to Enhance Memory
Working memory is limited in capacity and duration – processing strategies can boost our ability to form new
memories
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Chunking: organizing / grouping info into units
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Mnemonics: the use of vivid imagery and organizational devices to remember information
Roy G Biv
Hierarchies: the organizing of words or concepts into groups and subgroups
Research shows that encoding is more effective when spaced over time – Spacing Effect: long term retention
is aided through studying or practice that is distributed over time – cramming does not work and is not
effective – Testing Effect: the use of self-testing (self-assessment) to aid in retention
Module 31: Studying & Building Memories
Describe the levels of processing and their effectiveness.!
31-8: Levels of Processing
There are 2 levels of processing –
Shallow Processing: encoding on a basic level (the letters of a word / a word’s sound)
Deep Processing: semantic encoding (the meaning of a word)
Making information relevant / meaningful also helps with retention –
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of course, one
pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. After the procedure is completed one
arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places.
Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However,
that is part of life.
David Myers – Making Things Memorable:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rFIK5gutHKM
The amount of information remembered depends both on the time spent learning it and the ability to make it
relevant to our own lives
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Describe the capacity and location of long-term memory.!
32-1: Memory Storage
Memories do not reside in a specific location in the brain – many brain parts interact as the information that
makes up our memories is encoded, stored, and retrieved
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Describe the role of the frontal lobes and hippocampus in memory processing.!
32-2: Explicit Memory System – The Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus
The system that processes and stores explicit memory (facts and episodes) includes the frontal lobes and
hippocampus –
the frontal lobes process working memory
the hippocampus processes explicit memory for storage in other parts of the brain – sleep supports
memory consolidation – during sleep new experience and learning gets turned into memory
– research shows activity in the hippocampus during sleep corresponds with the
consolidation of new learning into memory
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Describe the role of the cerebellum and basal ganglia in memory processing.!
32-3: Implicit Memory System – The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
The system that processes and stores implicit memory (skills and conditioned associations) includes the
cerebellum and basal ganglia –
the cerebellum is important for conditioned behavior
the basal ganglia plays an important role in procedural learning
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Discuss how emotions affect memory processing.!
32-4: The Amygdala, Emotions, and Memory
Emotions trigger stress hormones that influence memory formation – excitement and stress cause stress
hormones to produce more glucose energy fueling brain activity and signaling the brain that something
important is happening – stress hormones stimulate the amygdala and boost activity in the brain’s
memory formation areas – “stronger emotional experiences make for stronger more reliable memories”
– memory makes adaptive sense, it increases the likelihood of survival by enabling us to predict what
could happen
Flashbulb Memory: a clear vivid
memory of an emotionally
significant moment / event
Memory & the Brain –
Frontal Lobes & Hippocampus:
explicit memory
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia:
implicit memory
Amygdala:
emotion-related memory
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Explain how changes at the synapse level affect memory processing.!
32-5: Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): the increase in a cell’s firing potential after stimulation – LTP is the neural
basis for learning and memory – as neurons get repeatedly stimulated, they become more efficient at
transmitting messages – increased neural activity changes the brain by forming and strengthening neural
interconnections – sleep is proven to be an effective memory enhancer
Memory Processing
2 Memory Systems
Automatic
Effortful
Implicit Memories
(Nondeclarative)
w/out conscious recall
Explicit Memories
(Declarative)
w/ conscious recall
Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia
Space, Time,
Frequency
Motor & Cognitive
Skills
Hippocampus & Frontal Lobes
Classical
Conditioning
Facts &
Personally Experienced
General Knowledge
Events
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Explain how memory is measured.!
32-6: Measuring Retention
3 Measures of Retention:
Recall: retrieving information learned earlier (fill-in-the blank)
Recognition: identifying information learned earlier (multiple-choice)
Relearning: assessing amount of time saved when learning material again
Studies on recognition and relearning show humans often remember more than we can recall
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Describe how external cues, internal emotions and order
of appearance influence memory retrieval.!
32-7: Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by associations – each piece of a memory is interconnected with other pieces –
any piece of interconnected information can act as a retrieval cue, a bit of information that helps us
access memory – the most effective retrieval cues come from associations formed when a memory is
encoded – sights, sounds, smells, tastes can evoke memories – associations are often evoked
unconsciously – Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory
Research provides the following insights into memory –
Context Dependent Memory –
we are more likely to remember information when in same place information was learned
State Dependent Memory –
what we learn in one state is more easily recalled when in that same state – memory is also Mood
Congruent – when experiencing a specific mood we are more likely to recall other times
when we felt the same way – explains why mood persists (happy people recall past happy
experiences) and that good mood is perpetuated
Serial Position (Primacy-Recency) Effect –
we tend to recall best the first (primacy) and last (recency) items on a list – have more time to
practice items at the beginning & items at the end are still in working memory
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
Explain why we forget.!
33-1: Forgetting
A good memory is helpful, but so to is the ability to forget – if we didn’t possess the ability to forget our
minds would be cluttered with needless information –
“If we remembered everything, we should be as ill off as if we remembered nothing.”
- William James
There are many reasons why we forget –
Amnesia –
Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia: inability to retrieve information from one’s past
Encoding Failure –
information has to be encoded to be remembered – much of what we sense isn’t important, so it
never gets encoded – memories don’t form without encoding – the brain also becomes less
responsive with age – an older brain encodes much more slowly
Storage Decay –
forgetting is rapid at first and then levels off – much forgetting occurs shortly after learning
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
Explain why we forget.!
33-1: Forgetting
Retrieval Failure –
often forgetting is memories unretrieved – in these cases, retrieval cues fail to help us access the
information
Interference –
retrieval failure that occurs when new learning and old learning get in the way of each other
Proactive Interference: prior learning gets in the way of new learning
Retroactive Interference: new learning gets in the way of old learning
Motivated Forgetting –
as we process information, we filter, alter, and lose much of it – neutral information is easily
forgotten – emotional events; however, are much harder to forget (even if we are motivated to
forget them - PTSD)
Eye Witness Testimony
Part 1 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo
Part 2 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
Explain how misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence memory
construction, and describe how we decide whether a memory is real or false.!
33-2: Memory Construction Errors
Memories are not retrieved, they are rewoven – we infer our past from stored information, plus what we
imagine, expect, want, see, hear – memory is an active process
Misinformation & Imagination
Elizabeth Loftus has conducted research on some 20,000 eye witnesses to better understand memory – in one
of her most famous studies, Loftus had subjects watch a film of a traffic accident and then answer
questions about it –
How fast were the cars going when they “hit” each other?
How fast were the cars going when they “smashed” into each other?
One week later when asked what they remember of the accident that had watched, people that had been
asked the “smashed” question were 2X more likely to have seen broken glass in the film even though
there was no broken glass in the clip
Misinformation Effect: the incorporation of misleading information into one’s memory of an experience
Research shows that repeatedly imagining actions and events can result in the creation of false memories
Elizabeth Loftus – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2OegI6wvI
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
Explain how misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence memory
construction, and describe how we decide whether a memory is real or false.!
33-2: Memory Construction Errors
Source Amnesia
The source is among the most fragile parts of memory – Source Amnesia (Misattribution): the attribution of
some event we have experienced, heard about, imagined to the wrong source – Source Amnesia and the
Misinformation Effect are the main reason of false memory
Déjà Vu: the sense that some event has been experienced before – researchers believe that déjà vu occurs
because the brain gets out of sync – temporal lobe processing (gives us a sense of familiarity) does not
match up with hippocampus and frontal lobe processing (allows us to consciously recall the details of a
specific experience)
True and False Memories
Source Amnesia and the Misinformation Effect are the products of unconscious processes – we don’t
intentionally misremember – because memory is actively constructed and reconstructed it gets changed /
distorted every time it’s accessed – ultimately, these changed memories become reality in our minds
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory
Improvement
Describe the reliability of children’s recall, and discuss the
controversy of repressed & recovered memories.!
33-3: Children’s Recall
Research shows children are highly prone to suggestibility – in one study, almost 60% of child test subjects
remembered having an experience that had never happened – researchers used suggestive questioning
techniques to plant false memories – we are more likely to remember the gist than the specifics
Repressed and Constructed Memories
Memories of events / experiences before the age of 3 are unreliable – Infantile Amnesia is a product of an
undeveloped brain lacking in the capacity to develop more lasting memories – psychology believes
that children can forget traumatic experiences (because of age or because of an inability to understand
the significance of the experience), but psychology also recognizes that memory can be recovered –
the right retrieval cues can provide access to any memory, even those of long-forgotten events –
psychology has wrestled with the idea of repressed memories: does the brain subconsciously repress
traumatic / painful memories? – the answer is no, we are more likely to remember traumatic experiences –
such moments are typically vivid & persistent (PTSD)
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
Define cognition, and describe the functions of concepts.!
33-4: Improving Memory
Memory Strategies:
• Rehearse Repeatedly – new memories / learning is weak – rehearsal is key to retention
• Make Material Meaningful – take notes in your own words, apply concepts to your own life, relate
information to what you already know
• Activate Retrieval Cues – mentally recreate situations and mood in which original learning occurred
to cue known information
• Use Mnemonic Devices – associate information with peg words or use mental images or acronyms
• Minimize Interference – study before sleep and don’t study easily confusable information back-toback (like biology and neuropsychology)
• Test Your Knowledge – take self tests to assess learning progress
SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review) study method (Pgs 16 & 17) –
http://www.studygs.net/texred2.htm
Module 34: Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
Define cognition and describe the functions of concepts.!
34-1: Thinking and Concepts
Cognition: all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication
Concepts: mental groupings of similar objects
Prototypes: mental images that best represent a category
Concepts and prototypes simplify thinking – they make life easier for us by guiding and speeding up our
thinking
Mind Reading http://www.cbsnews.com/videos/mind-reading-50073711/
Module 34: Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
Identify factors associated with creativity, and
describe ways of promoting creativity.!
34-2: Creativity
Creativity: the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Creativity is critical to solving problems – Divergent Thinking: expands a problem’s potential solutions is
most relevant to creativity (frontal lobe), as opposed to Convergent Thinking: narrows a problem’s
solution to a single best solution (left parietal lobe) which is a better indicator of intelligence
5 Components of Creativity –
• Expertise – a well developed knowledge base is critical to finding potential solutions
• Imaginative Thinking Skills – provides the ability to see things in different ways
• Venturesome Personality – doesn’t limit one’s willingness to take risks or overcome obstacles
• Intrinsic Motivation – creativity is driven by an internal desire to find solutions / solve problems
• Creative Environment – creativity thrives in environments that support novel thinking and ideas
Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Describe cognitive strategies that assist problem solving,
and identify obstacles that hinder it.!
35-1: Strategies & Obstacles to Problem Solving
SPLOYOCHYG
We solve problems several ways trial & error: use of many methods to find a solution
algorithm: step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem
heuristic: simple thinking strategies that allows us to solve problems
insight: sudden realization of a solution – as opposed to strategy-based solutions (activity in frontal lobe
& right temporal lobe)
Wolfgang Kohler - Insight
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPz6uvIbWZE
To find hot cocoa mix in the grocery store, we could –
search the store aisle-by-aisle (algorithm) or go directly to the breakfast aisle or drink aisle (heuristic)
Despite our problem-solving abilities, humans thinking tendencies can lead us astray – we tend to seek out
information and solutions that support our preconceptions (Confirmation Bias) – we are likely to gravitate
towards information that supports what we believe / think to be true (Iraq War) – leads to Mental Set: an
approach to problem-solving based on what has worked in the past – Mental Set predisposes how we think
Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Explain what is meant by intuition, and describe how
decisions and judgments are influenced.!
35-2: Forming Decisions and Judgments
Many of the decisions and judgments we make day-to-day are based on Intuition: immediate & effortless
decision-making / thinking – heuristics enable snap judgments – these judgments / decisions are
typically effective
Representative Heuristic: judgments based on how well they represent / match prototypes
Availability Heuristic: judgments based how mentally available they are
Overconfidence: humans typically overestimate the accuracy of their knowledge
Belief Perseverance: clinging to one’s beliefs despite evidence that discredits those beliefs
Framing: the way a problem is posed – significantly influences decisions and judgments
“Don’t Believe Everything You Think”
Heuristics – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MBkNM_6sqa4
Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Explain what is meant by intuition, and describe how
decisions and judgments are influenced.!
35-3: Describe How Thinkers Use Intuition
Intuition is critical to sound decision-making – unconscious processing is critical – sleeping on an important
decision, for example, can be beneficial – intuition enables us to react quickly – intuition is acquired
through experience – “Intuition is analysis frozen into habit”
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Describe the structural components of language.!
36-1: Language Structure
Language: spoken, written, and signed words and how they are combined to communicate meaning –
language enables humans to communicate and share information
The structural components of language are:
Phonemes: smallest distinctive sound bits of a language
Morphemes: small units that can meaning (can be entire words or parts of words)
Grammar: system of rules that allows us to communicate and understand others
Semantics: rules for deriving meaning from sounds
Syntax: rules for combining / ordering words into coherent sentences
Harvard Psychologist Steven Pinker –
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-B_ONJIEcE
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Identify milestones in language development.!
36-2: When Do We Learn Language?
Receptive Language – ability to understand what is said to and about you
Language development moves from the simple to the complex – human infants are born without the ability to
speak (in fantis “not speaking”) – by 4 months they can recognize differences in speech sounds and by
7 months they can segment spoken sounds into individual words
Productive Language – ability to produce words
Humans understand language before they learn to produce it – our earliest speech is babbling – babbling
evolves into the one-word stage (ages 1 to 2) to the two-word stage (age 2) to telegraphic speech (early
speech stage using mostly nouns and verbs) – often mirrors messages sent via text – after the age of 2
language develops rapidly
Month
Stage
4
Babbled speech sounds
10
Babbling resembles language
12
One-Word Stage
24
Two-Word Stage
24+
Language develops rapidly
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Describe how language is acquired.!
36-3: Language Development
There are some 7,000 languages spoken throughout the world – though quite diverse, all languages share
some basic elements (nouns, verbs, adjectives) – humans are prewired to learn the rules of grammar –
however, we are not born with a built-in specific language – what ever language we are exposed to as
children we will learn
Children have a critical period for learning language and all its nuances – by age 7 those not sufficiently
exposed to spoken or signed language lose their ability to master a language
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Identify brain areas involved in language processing and speech.!
36-4: The Brain and Language
Aphasia (impairment of language, speaking or comprehension, due to damage to the brain) – Aphasia helps
us to understand that many brain areas serve different language functions
Broca’s Area: directs muscles involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area: coordinates language comprehension
Sarah Scott - Aphasia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1aplTvEQ6ew
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zi1yQhYpfFM
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Describe the relationship between language and thinking.!
36-5: Language and Thought
Language Determinism: language determines thinking (Benjamin Lee Whorf) – research suggests words
don’t determine what we think, but rather influence how we think – expanding language, however,
expands one’s ability to think – language enables us to conceptualize abstract ideas
Thinking in Images
Words convey ideas, but we also often think in imagery – research shows that for people that have learned a
skill, watching others perform that skill activates their brain (those neural networks involved in the
actual experience) – mental practice (process simulation) has shown to be quite beneficial
Thinking affects our language which then affects our thought