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Power converters (not only semiconductor) Power semiconductor converters • Equipment for changing quality of electrical energy (voltage, current, frequency, no. of phases, impedance, etc.) • Conversion of energy „nearly“ without power losses • The most often converters: – rectifiers (diodes, not controlled), – frequency converters (non-direct, with DC link). • The most often applications: – power supply, AC drivers. History of converters • electro-mechanical principle AC vers. DC – beginning by N. Tesla and T. A. Edison, – rotating rectifiers, switching of windings, brushes. • electro-magnetic principle end of 19th. century – groups of rotating machines: Ward-Leonardo History of converters • Selenium based rectifiers: – end of 19th. century, low current density • Mercury based rectifiers: – current of ions in a steam of Hg, – Cathode – liquid of Hg, Anode – solid, Siemens 15 kV / 1A – range of kA, kV, traction power supply, – In Prague from 1929 since 1967. • Thyratrone – units of kV, units of Amperes Semiconductor converters • In Czech since the end of 50th. ČKD Elektrotechnika • In 1964 introduced ČKD Polovodiče – Pankrác heat sinks, accessories discrete devices silicon wafers power modules converters Converters - overview rectifiers: AC DC inverters: DC AC frequency AC AC converters (direct/indirect) DC converter: DC DC 1 2 RMS (effective) U u dt RMS voltage: T Mean (average) U 1 u.dt AV voltage: T Most often converter - SMPS • SMPS – Switch Mode Power Source, • all chargers, PC supplies, household appliances, U i 4,44 f S B N N 2 S2 f1 N 1 S1 f2 • basic aim – reducing of mass and dimension of transformers in comparison with classic (linear) power supply, • product S·B·N stands for a cubic (volume) of transformer. Most often converter- DC supply medium frequency transformers Power supply for industry • DC sources • Power Factor Correction (PFC) – better efficiency • passive PFC – only chokes (coils) Without PFC Active PFC • active PFC – adapted DC link with FET, PWM control, better PF, more expensive. Example of high frequency disturbance – influence of SMPS Basic blocs of SMPS and its frequency spectrum (bellow). See multiplied PWM disturbance (x20 kHz) Disturbance (noise) voltage of DC brush driver: M 20 U (mV) 1 kV 15 10 5 f (kHz) 1 ms 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 Detail of voltage on commutator Noise-suppressing filters for EMC – basic circuit design • symmetric and asymmetric noise voltage – more types of L/C necessary, • impedance matching = for high efficiency, • reducing of mass and dimensions of coils • limits for capacitors Cx/Cy = thanks to leakage currents, • additional functions = surge protections, switches, etc. L PE N L CY L1 PE CX L1 CY N Assembly and mounting of filters • placing and mounting of filters = big influence on efficiency, • important is: separating of input/output cables, no loops, minimizing of lengths/areas, • filters must be placed directly to input cables, • good connections between chassis and filters (grounding) is required. filtr YES NO NO filtr filtr NO YES EMC chokes – most simple solutions • connected in series in powered lines, • rated for nominal current, • overdosing of cores (not convenient), • compensated chokes: – subtraction of magnetic fluxes, – not efficient for symmetrical voltage. I,F I F=0 I,F not-compensated chokes I current compensated chokes Harmonic, inter-harmonic currents Immediate power p V·A Product of immediate V and I Apparent power S V·A Product of effective V and I Active power P W Average value of immediate power p (for periodical signals) Non-active power Q~ V·A, var Square root of difference between S and P (just for periodical conditions) Reactive power Q V·A, var Non active power for linear double-pole device (R, L, C) Power factor l - general definitions: P/S cos cos - Just for harmonic signals is P/S equal to cos ! Phase angle °, rad Angle from voltage to current vector Definitions according ČSN IEC 60050-131: Basic circuit theory Typical currents - consumption Non-harmonic conditions (rectifier): Harmonic conditions (inductive load): 400 400 napětí voltage U (V) I (m A) proud current U (V) I (m A) 200 200 current proud (m s) 0 0 0 5 10 15 (m s) 0 20 -200 -200 -400 -400 5 10 voltage napětí 15 20 Power triangle, power factor Harmonic conditions: • linear devices (R, L, C), • sinusoidal current. General non-harmonic conditions: • nonlinear devices (etc. rectifiers), • general consumption of current. S = UI S Q = UI sin f Q~ f P = UI cos f P l P S cos P l S l U I h 1 h h cos h UI P UI1 cos 1 I1 cos 1 S UI I Deformation and displacing of current/voltage waveforms 400 400 current proud U (V) I (m A) U (V) I (m A) 200 200 proud current (m s) 0 0 0 -200 (m s) 5 10 15 20 napětí voltage -400 Deformation only of current waveform (low impedance of distribution network) 0 -200 5 10 15 20 napětí voltage -400 Deformities of voltage and current waveforms (simultaneously, distribution network with higher impedance) Influence of higher harmonics components • creation of non-active power, increase of apparent power, • it makes power factor (l) worse, • it makes bigger power losses, • increase of loading for compensation capacitors, • increase of pulsing moments (AC drivers), • higher harmonics currents are not compensated (neutral conductor!), • overloading of neutral conductor. Reducing of harmonics currents (components of current) • PFC – Power Factor Correction (removing of root cause) • compensations (passive/active filters) – removing of consequences • principle of PFC – prolongation of current consumption (chokes) pasivní PFC passive PFC aktivní PFC active PFC Passive PFC 400 100 voltage napětí U (V) I (m A) 200 50 proud current (m s) 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 1 11 21 31 -200 Spectrum of harmonics -400 Consumption of current – time dependence 41 Active PFC 400 100 napětí voltage U (V) I (m A) 200 proud 50 current (m s) 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 1 -200 -400 Consumption of current – time dependence 11 21 31 Spectrum of harmonics 41 Filters for compensation Passive filters: • resonance LC circuits for actual harmonics, • short circuit for undesired harmonics, • disadvantage – accumulation of harmonics from the nearest networks. Active filters: • transistor based PWM converters, • active filter are producing (by means of PWM) higher harmonics (IH) and reactive components (IJ) of the load current (IZ), • more complicated circuit. Main parts of frequency converters • backplane board, • power modules, • aluminum body (heat sink), • cooling fan (at the bottom), • cooling from bottom to the top, • control circuits, keyboard at front side. • aluminum body and plastics cover • control panel, keyboard – on the top. Cooling of modules Vertical channels for cooling Standard channels and temperature distribution on the heat-sink. Big power module with water/liquid cooling Cooling cells with meander channels Six independent modules on cooling board Typical devices for converters • • • • modules – integrated semiconductor devices, cooling – passive/active = forced air-flow, inductance-less housing, potential-free copper bases. • • • • DC link (circuit) – battery of electrolytic capacitors, electrolytic cap. – up to 450/500 V, 102 mF / 500 V, endurance up 600 V, outlets – screws or SNAP-IN for soldering into PCB. Unconventional converters (I) Up/down DC converters: • for cars/automotive …12/24 VDC • for power supply… 12VDC / 230 VAC • massive outlets (terminals) • heat transfer through whole body • compact design Unconventional converters (II) Traction converter for Czech Railways (CZ train type 560) • supply voltage 2x 465 V • output voltage 730 V • output current 630 A (permanently) • output current 1200 A (1 min) • nominal power 420 kW permanently • 465 kW per hour • IGCT thyristors • operating frequency 600 Hz • active air cooling 4000 m3 / hour • dimensions 1015 × 930 × 1250 mm • weight 460 kg Unconventional converters (III) Extensible rectifier for underground in Prague • installed at line C • three-phase bridge, all diodes made as pairs • input voltage 660 V AC / 50 Hz • output voltage 884 V DC • max. input voltage 2000 V • output current IDC = 3000 A (permanently) • IDC = 4500 A (2 hour) • IDC = 9000 A (1 min.)