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Reference Guide
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Comprehensive Urinary Steroid Hormone Profile
Reference Guide
Background
A 24-hour collection is used to measure steroid hormones in urine.
Hormone testing is used to identify conditions of deficiencies and excess of which may be
assessed against evidence from physical signs, symptoms and past medical history.
Hormones are made and released by cells of the endocrine glands. These “chemical
messengers” are generally released in short bursts or pulses at various intervals reflecting
physical and mental status in addition to circadian variations. A 24-hour urine sample offers the
most sensitive means to account for the production and metabolic activity of steroid hormones
against the natural variations that we see in a 24-hour period. Steroid hormones are transported
by the blood to various target cells on which they have specific effects. The circulating form in the
bloodstream is bound almost entirely to various plasma proteins. Urine sampling provides the
best indicator of the free or unbound steroid; the biologically active form.
Optimal hormone levels in any individual should be within a range that allows them relief from
complaints and problems suggestive of a hormone deficiency or excess.
The steroid hormones and their metabolites, produced by the adrenal glands and gonads (ovaries
and testicles) are the foundation of BioTek’s Comprehensive Urinary Steroid Hormone Profile.
The adrenal hormones include cortisol and DHEA. The hormones of the gonads, known as sex
hormones, include estrogens, progesterone and testosterone.
Steroid hormones are crucial for health and well being. They mediate a wide variety of functions
from growth and development, reproduction, anti-inflammatory activity, protection against
osteoporosis and certain cancers, to regulation of sexual function and resistance to stress.
On a cautionary note, epidemiological data support the role for some steroid hormones in excess
or deficiency, in the pathogenesis of certain cancers including that of the breast, uterine
endometrium, prostate, testis and ovary. Cancer results from a complex and yet unclear
interaction between age, genetic and environmental factors. Tissue biopsy and imaging confirms
the diagnosis.
Medications affecting steroid hormone levels are diverse and include: estrogens (including birth
control pills, hormone replacement therapy), testosterone, corticosteroids, digoxin, thiazides,
spironolactone, barbiturates, medicines to treat prostate or breast cancer, and certain anti-seizure
drugs. This list is not exhaustive.
This guideline is intended as a brief introduction for the clinician. Interpretation of patient results is
at the discernment of the clinician in light of a full medical examination and review of current
medications.
A review of key enzyme systems in steroid hormone metabolism is listed below:
17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase (17β-HSD): catalyses the interconversion between highly
active 17β-hydroxy and low-activity 17-keto-steroids, thereby regulating the biological activity of
the sex steroids.
Aromatase: a cytochrome P450 enzyme and the key enzyme for estrogen biosynthesis.
Catalyses conversion of androstenedione and testosterone to estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2),
respectively. Excess estrogen activity is implicated in hormone-dependent breast cancer, painful
endometriosis and fibroids.
11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase (11β-HSD): interconverts inactive cortisone and active
cortisol. Although bidirectional it primarily functions as a reductase generating active cortisol.
1
5-Reductase (5-R): responsible for the formation of more potent androgens that have been
implicated in such conditions as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), male pattern baldness,
androgenetic alopecia, hirsutism, acne and polycystic ovarian syndrome.
Increased enzyme activity is associated with obesity and insulin resistance in both women and
men.
The A/E and THF/THF ratios have been suggested to reflect hepatic 5-reductase activity (see
below).
21-Hydroxylase: a cytochrome P450 enzyme responsible for the synthesis of cortisol and
aldosterone. In the extreme case, a defect in this enzyme function results in low glucocorticoid
and mineralocorticoid production as seen in congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Estrogens
Estrogen may be made in several tissues. Aromatase, widely present throughout the body,
catalyzes the rate limiting step in estrogen biosynthesis. The premenopausal ovary contains the
highest level of aromatase and is the predominant source of the strongly estrogenic E2 during the
premenopausal years. Peripheral adipose tissue and breast tissue also contain aromatase
activity. The peripheral conversion of androgens to estrogens accounts for the circulating
estrogens found in postmenopausal women and men.
Estrone (E1), Estradiol (E2), Estriol (E3)
Estrone is not as estrogenic as estradiol. Although higher levels are present in the urine, estradiol
is ten times more potent and represents the major biologically active estrogen. Estrone
represents the estrogen pool of the body. Estrone and estradiol can interconvert. The end product
is E3 which is regarded as the least estrogenic.
Estrogens feminize the body. Estrogens (particularly E2) enlarge the breasts, and promote
proliferation of the endometrium in the uterus making menstruation possible.
Estradiol is responsible for vaginal lubrication and initiating ovulation. The drop in estrogen levels
at the end of the menstrual cycle causes the period to begin.
The normal menstrual cycle can be divided into 3 distinct phases. The follicular, ovulatory and
luteal phases.
Follicular Phase
Begins with the first day of bleeding to the day before the “LH surge” or ovulation.
Development and maturation of a cohort of follicles in the ovaries, of which one will ovulate,
occurs at this time. This phase is promoted by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), from the
anterior pituitary. During this time E2 secretion from the ovaries increases slowly, with a
concomitant slow but steady fall in FSH and rise in luteinizing hormone (LH). Progesterone levels
also begin to increase significantly. E2 peaks the day of the LH surge.
Ovulatory Phase
Marked by the peak release of LH, “LH surge”, from the anterior pituitary gland.
This surge typically lasts about 36-48 hours and is necessary for release of the ovum from the
mature follicle. The surge consists of pulsatile bursts of LH from the pituitary.
Women with regular menses accompanied by premenstrual breast tenderness, lower abdominal
bloating and moodiness are usually ovulatory. An indicator that ovulation occurred in a given
cycle is an elevation in urine of the progesterone metabolite, pregnanediol. This is most noted
during the luteal phase.
2
Luteal Phase
E2 levels fall and progesterone levels continue to increase marking the luteal phase.
Progesterone released from the ovary during this time supports the released ovum with levels
peaking at about 6-8 days after the LH surge. Typically, the luteal phase lasts about 14 days in
the absence of pregnancy and ends with the onset of menstruation.
The median menstrual cycle is about 28 days but varies considerably from 18-40 days. Variation
typically occurs in the years following the onset of regular menstrual cycles and preceding the
peri-menopausal phase when anovulatory cycles are more common.
Menopause
Cessation of ovarian function is marked by the absence of a menstrual cycle for 12 consecutive
months.
The postmenopausal ovary and adrenal gland continue to secrete androgens which are
converted to estrogens in the periphery (fat cells, skin). This peripheral conversion accounts for
most of the circulating estrogen found in postmenopausal women.
Estrogen deficiency in women may manifest with1:
• Hot flushes followed by chills
• Night sweats
• Small breasts or breast ptosis
• Polymenorrhea, spanomenorrhea
• Hypo/Amenorrhea
• Spasmodic dysmenorrhea
• Vaginal dryness
• Vaginal atrophy
• Dyspareunia
• Vaginal, uterine prolapse
Estrogen excess in men may manifest with2:
• Obesity
• Gynecomastia
• Impotence
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Urinary stress incontinence
Weight gain
Fluid retention, swelling (abdomen,
breasts)
Persistent fatigue
Poor sex drive/libido
Osteopenia, osteoporosis
Infertility
Cardiovascular disease
•
•
•
Benign prostate hypertrophy
Myocardial infarction
Testosterone treatments
Note: As a man gains body fat, his aromatase enzyme becomes more active converting more
androstenedione and testosterone to estrogen, creating an estrogen-to-testosterone imbalance.
Estriol Quotient (EQ) = E3/E1+E2
The ratio of estriol (E3), to the sum of estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2), known as the estriol
quotient (EQ), is believed to reflect the degree of “estrogenicity”.3 These 3 classical estrogens
differ in estrogenic potency. E3 is classified as a short-acting “weak estrogen” compared to E1
and E2 due to its lower affinity for the estrogen receptors and its higher clearance rate. A higher
EQ is therefore believed to be favorable. Low EQs have been found in postmenopausal women
with breast cancer and premenopausal women with fibrocystic breast disease.4
In pregnancy, E3 is an indicator of fetal well-being and closely reflects fetal adrenal activity. E3
has also been shown to increase significantly prior to the onset of normal labor.5
During the normal menstrual cycle, E1 and E2 are lower during the early follicular (day 2) and late
luteal (day 26) phase compared to E3. The EQ may be elevated during these time periods
reflecting this proportionate drop in E1 and E2.6
3
Estrogen Metabolites
The inactivation and clearance of estrogens involves several specific P450 enzymes of which are
abundant in the liver but also found in most cells. Phase I of this process involves hydroxylation;
the first step in making the compounds more water soluble for their elimination. Phase II involves
the conjugation to methyl, sulfate and glucuronide groups. Among the estrogen metabolites
formed during this process, some are highly estrogenic whereas some are not. Genetic
polymorphisms of the cytochrome P450 enzymes, affecting the transformation of the estrogens
have and continue to be identified as playing an integral role in hormone-sensitive cancer
etiology.7
2-Hydroxyestrone (2-OHE1)/ 16-Hydroxyestrone (16-OHE1) Ratio
2- and 16-hydroxyestrone are metabolites of the parent estrogenic hormones; estradiol (E2) and
estrone (E1). These parent compounds are readily interconverted in the body by the enzyme
17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17β-HSD.
The ratio of 2- to 16-hydroxyestrone has been utilized in research studies as a risk assessment
tool for breast cancer, prostate cancer and other hormone-sensitive diseases. A positive
association between breast cancer risk, for example, and persistently elevated blood levels of
estrogens has been consistently found in many studies.8,9,10,11
Estrogens are a proliferative stimulus to breast tissue, increasing the number of cell divisions and,
by inference the mutation rate.
The hydroxylation of estrogen at the C-16, or carbon-16 position, produces the biologically strong
16-OHE1 metabolite. This metabolite demonstrates significant proliferative or stimulatory activity
on human cancer cell lines.12,13,14 Hydroxylation at the C-2 position, on the other hand, yields the
biologically weaker estrogen metabolite, 2-OHE1. This metabolite exerts anti-proliferative
properties on human cancer cells with little to no estrogenic activity.15
A low urine 2:16-OHE1 ratio indicates preferential metabolism via the 16-hydroxylation
pathway to yield 16-OHE1. Abnormal estrogen metabolism with increased 16-OHE1 activity
compared to 2-OHE1 has been associated with proliferative thyroid disease16, prostate cancer17,
knee osteoarthritis in middle aged women18, and autoimmune disease including rheumatoid
arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in women and men.19
Interestingly, the abnormal pattern of estrogen metabolism favoring 16-hydroxylation seems to
be independent of sex and gonadal steroid production. One study found total serum
concentrations of E2 to be well within physiologic range in both sexes affected by RA and SLE.20
Another study found no difference in concentrations of E2 in breast cancer tissue among pre- and
postmenopausal women despite the fact that the plasma levels decrease by 90% after
menopause.21
It is understood that estrogen and its metabolic products may be synthesised de novo in the
target tissue. The enzyme aromatase converts upstream androgen precursors (testosterone,
androstenedione) to the estrogens. Following menopause, for example, this becomes the primary
source of estrogens; the conversion of androgens to estrogens by the enzyme aromatase in
adipose tissue. This conversion is thought to be dependent on the inflammatory state of the
target tissue and is up regulated in inflamed loci. Increased tissue aromatase activity is induced
by locally produced inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6). This is strongly suggestive of
a common theme to disease; one of chronic inflammation and inflammation-dependent
reactions.22
Although the optimal level for the ratio is not known, an increase in the ratio of 2-hydroxyestrone
relative to 16-hydroxyestrone is considered to be protective23, or an indicator of favorable
estrogen metabolism. Currently there are no published human data on the effects of very high
ratios or what can be considered reasonable upper limits.
4
4-Hydroxyestrone (4-OHE1)
4-hydroxyestrogens are carcinogenic estrogen metabolites with relative binding affinities for
estrogen receptors equal to or greater than the parent E1 and E2 compounds. 4-hydroxylation
activity has been identified in breast tissue, ovary, adrenal gland, uterus and elsewhere. Further
metabolism yields quinone/semiquinone intermediates capable of generating free radicals able to
cause oxidative damage to lipids, proteins and DNA.24
2-Methyoxyestrone (2-ME1), 4-Methoxyestrone (4-ME1)
2- and 4-hydroxylated estrogen metabolites may be converted to corresponding
methoxyestrogens during Phase II of estrogen detoxification. Methylation, via the enzyme
catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), inactivates their estrogenic potential and blocks their
ability to undergo oxidation to reactive quinone/semiquinone metabolites that can participate in
the generation of free radicals. Polymorphisms are associated with a low activity form of COMT.
These Phase II metabolites may be converted back to their hydroxylated estrogens by
glucuronidase. A balance among the methoxylated and hydroxylated estrogen metabolites is
likely required to maintain homeostasis.25
DHEA
17β-HSD
Androstenedione
17β-HSD
Aromatase
16α-OHE1
Estrogenic
Genotoxic
P450
2-OHE1
Conjugates
Methoxystrogens,
Glucuronides,
Sulfates
Protective
COMT
Excretion
17β-HSD
Estradiol (E2)
P450
4-OHE1
COMT
Conjugates
2-, 4- Methoxyestrogens
Inactive Estrogens
Testosterone
Aromatase
Estrone (E1)
P450
Androstenediol
Semi Q
Quinones
Oxidative Damage
GSH Transferase
Inactive
Estrogen
Excretion
Progesterone & Metabolites
Progesterone (P), Pregnanediol (P2)
Progesterone (P), is the precursor for the major steroid hormones (androgens, estrogens,
corticosteroids) produced by the adrenal cortex, gonads and other tissues.
P is involved in normal breast development, the proliferative changes that occur during the
menstrual cycle, pregnancy and lactation.
In breast tissue, P is converted to several metabolites, some of which are believed to stimulate or
inhibit cell proliferation and tumorigenesis. In vitro studies show elevated P 5α-reductase activity
with higher 5α- reduced P metabolites, in breast tumor tissue compared to normal breast tissue.26
Produced by the ovaries during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, the role of progesterone
in the premenopausal female is to support the ovum and prepare the uterus for implantation of
the fertilized egg.
To determine if ovulation occurred in a given cycle, an elevation in the urinary metabolite of
progesterone, pregnanediol (P2), will be seen in the luteal phase with peak levels occurring about
6-8 days after the LH surge. However, the quality of ovulation is evaluated by an endometrial
biopsy.
5
Progesterone deficiency (= estrogen excess) may manifest with27:
• Premenstrual breast swelling and
• Dysmenorrhea
tenderness
• Endometriosis
• Premenstrual abdominal bloating
• Ovarian cysts
• Premenstrual irritability, anxiety,
• Uterine fibroids
tension
• Infertility
• Cystic breasts
• Breast & endometrial cancer
• Mastalgia
• Menorrhagia
In men, progesterone is predominantly secreted by the adrenal glands; levels of which decline
with age, but may be comparable to young adult women in the follicular phase, during ¾ of their
lifetime. Progesterone is believed to play a favorable role in reducing E2 and DHT levels;
speeding the conversion of E2 to the less potent E1, and competitively blocking the conversion of
T to DHT, respectively. Elevated E2 and a DHT/T ratio may result from progesterone deficiency.
Progesterone is also believed to play an important role in sperm motility.28
Progesterone deficiency (=estrogen and DHT excess) in men may manifest with:
• Gynecomastia
• Cardiovascular disease
• Benign prostate hypertrophy
• Increased sex drive/libido (due to
excess DHT vs.T)
• Male pattern baldness
• Cancer of the prostate
Since progesterone is the major precursor of the adrenal hormones (cortisol and aldosterone),
and androgens (androstenedione and testosterone), progesterone deficiency may be
accompanied by deficiencies of these hormones in both women and men.
17-Hydroxysteroids (Glucocorticoids)
Pregnanetriol (P3)
A metabolite of 17-hydroxyprogesterone, normally produced in small quantities by the adrenal
glands and gonads. Elevated levels of P3 in addition to P2 are associated with a deficiency in the
enzyme 21-hydroxylase in congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Hirsute women may show elevated urine levels of P3 suggesting an adrenal abnormality probably
in the 21-hydroxyulation of P.29
Cortisol, Cortisone
Allo-Tetrahydrocortisol (-THF), Tetrahydrocortisone (THE), Tetrahydrocortisol (THF)
Cortisol represents the principle circulating glucocorticoid secreted under the control of the
hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The role of cortisol in the body includes; the regulation
of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, maintenance of blood pressure, modulation of
catecholamine discharge, the stress and inflammatory response.
Blood cortisol levels are highest in the morning (6-8 a.m.) and lowest in late afternoon/evening.
Melatonin and growth hormone are secreted at night to reduce cortisol levels and allow sleep.
Cortisol deficiency or adrenal fatigue may manifest with30:
• Poor resistance to stress (physical,
•
mental, emotional)
• Inadequate food absorption
•
• Hypoglycemia
• Acute hair loss
•
• Anxiety, irritability
• Sweating feet and hands
Excessive/chronic inflammation
(arthritis, chronic fatigue syndrome,
fibromyalgia)
Increase in susceptibility to many
infections
Brownish skin folds (due to excess
ACTH release on weak adrenals)
More than 90% of circulating cortisol is protein bound. The free fraction is the biologically active
form. About 50% of the glucocorticoids secreted in a day are released in the urine as THF, α-THF
and THE.31
6
THF and THF are the two main metabolites of cortisol. THE is the main metabolite of cortisone.
A defect in the interconversion of the biologically active cortisol into inactive cortisone is reflected
by a reduced level of urinary cortisone metabolites compared to cortisol metabolites. This is
calculated using the ratio below. This ratio is used as an index of 11β-hydroxysteroid
dehydrogenase, 11β-HSD, activity:
THF + THF / THE
A ratio of approximately 1 is considered normal.32
11β-HSD activity is important in controlling the overall equilibrium of local glucocorticoid levels
and maintaining a constant balance between cortisol and cortisone in “glucocorticoid target
tissues” (liver, gonads, adipose tissue, brain).
Tissue-specific changes of 11β-HSD activity have been shown in obesity with decreased activity
in liver and increased activity in adipose tissue. Enhanced conversion of cortisone to cortisol in
the adipose tissue of the abdomen plays a role in the pathogenesis of central obesity. Cortisol is
essential for adipocyte differentiation (increase in fat cell size). Waist (an indicator of central
obesity) has been shown to be positively correlated with the THF + THF / THE ratio indicating
increased 11β-HSD with increasing central fat distribution.33
The ratio of THF/THF is an indicator of 5-reductase vs. 5β-reductase activity. An elevated ratio
reflects preferential 5-reductase activity. This ratio, combined with anthropometric data, may be
used as an index of insulin sensitivity in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), the
most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. PCOS is associated with
hypercortisolism, hyperandrogenism and hyperinsulinemia. Insulin and androgens enhance 5reduction.34
Mineralocorticoids
Tetrahydrocorticosterone (THB), Tetrahydro-11-dehydrocorticosterone (THA)
Mineralocorticoids are produced by the adrenal cortex and are involved in the reabsorption of
sodium with an associated reabsorption of water and secretion of potassium. Aldosterone is the
principle mineralocorticoid produced. Elevated mineralocorticoids may result in hypertension and
edema due to excess sodium and water retention. The potassium loss may cause muscle
weakness. Low mineralocorticoid production is associated with Addison’s disease.
Glucocorticoids circulate at levels 100 times that of mineralocorticoids with similar affinity for the
mineralocorticoid receptors in target tissues. The 11β-HSD enzyme, responsible for the
conversion of cortisol to inactive cortisone protects the mineralocorticoid receptors from cortisol
intoxication.
As seen with the glucocorticoid metabolites mentioned above, the sum of the urinary tetra-hydroderivatives of mineralocorticoids may be used as an indirect index of their production.35 Two
major urinary metabolites of the mineralocorticoid corticosterone are tetrahydrocorticosterone
7
(THB) and tetrahydro-11-dehydrocorticosterone (THA) in addition to aldosterone. Corticosterone
itself has low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid potency. THB and THA excretion has been
shown to be elevated in hypertensive patients. This may be of particular importance in
combination with mildly deficient 11β-HSD enzyme activity.36,37
Increased excretion of mineralocorticoid metabolites in addition to that of glucocorticoids has
been shown in PCOS women, primarily due to increased peripheral 5α-reducatase activity.38
17-Ketosteroids (17-KS) - Androgens
These are primarily the adrenal androgens. In women and children, the adrenal gland is the
predominant source. In men about one-third are of gonadal origin. The main precursors of these
17-KS are dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), the mandatory precursor of both male and female
sex hormones, and its sulfate, DHEAS.
17-KS are elevated in Cushing’s syndrome, adrenal hyperplasias (congenital is rare), some
adrenal tumors, ovarian and testicular cancer, PCOS, pregnancy and obesity. Virilization is very
often secondary to hypersecretion of adrenal androgens.
Decreased 17-KS levels are found in adrenal insufficiency, Addison’s disease, hypopituitarism,
myxedema, nephrosis and anorexia nervosa. Deficiencies are also associated with decreased
axillary and pubic hair, aging, erectile dysfunction and low sexual satisfaction/desire in women
and men.
Aromatase converts androgen to estrogen. High enzyme activity is suggested by low total 17-KS
along with high estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2).
Medications that may increase 17-KS:
• Antibiotics
• Dexamethasone
•
•
Spironolactone
Phenothiazines
Medications that may decrease 17-KS:
• Birth control pills
• Estrogens
•
•
Prolonged use of Salicylates
Thiazide diuretics
Androsterone (A), Etiocholanolone (E); A/E Ratio
Derived primarily from both adrenal androgens and testosterone, these two stereoisomers
represent the principle 17-ketosteriods and the final end products in the androgen degradation
pathway. When considered in conjunction with testosterone (T) excretion, these 17-KS reflect
alterations in androgen activity. A is a product of the enzyme 5-reductase. E is a product of the
enzyme 5β-reductase. 5-reductase activity is up-regulated by androgens. The ratio of A/E is
used as an index of 5-reductase activity. This enzyme also converts T to dihydrotestosterone
(DHT) and is important in determining the magnitude of the androgen stimulus in some tissues.
This ratio, combined with anthropometric data, may be used as an index of insulin sensitivity in
women with PCOS, the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age.39
Increased 5-R activity may manifest with:
• Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)
• Acne
• Hirsutism
• Androgenetic alopecia
•
•
•
Virilization
Male pattern baldness
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
The ratio of -THF/THF is regarded as a more representative index of 5-reductase activity (see
above).
8
Androstenedione
Produced in the adrenal glands, ovaries and testes, androstenedione carries little intrinsic
androgenic activity but is readily converted to both active androgens (testosterone) and
estrogens. This may result in androgenic or estrogenic effects of excess.
Androgen excess may manifest with:
• Acne beyond puberty
• Hirsutism
• Male pattern baldness
• Voice deepening
• Weight gain
• Loss of female body contour
• Altered menstrual cycling/infertility
Estrogen excess may manifest with:
• Gynecomastia
• Testicular atrophy
• Impotency
• Altered menstrual cycling
• Endometrial hyperplasia
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fatigue/mood swings
Increased libido in women
Clitoromegaly
Testicular atrophy
Edema
Liver disease/cancer
Reduced HDL-C
•
Risk of uterine, breast & prostate
cancer
Blood clotting
Glucose intolerance
Hypertriglyceridemia
•
•
•
Androstanediol
Androstanediol is the most abundant male androgen metabolite. Its levels reflect the degree of
androgen activity; a high level reflects a high conversion rate down the androgen pathway from
DHEA to testosterone to DHT in target tissues.40
Androstanediol is a breakdown product of DHT and may be used as a marker of androgen activity
in peripheral tissues such as the skin; levels of which may be associated with hirsutism in women.
Hirsutism reflects increased 5-reudctase activity which produces DHT (highly active form of
testosterone) leading to the stimulation of hair growth in areas that are typically without hair. In
women, up to 80% of androstanediol is formed from adrenal precursors. In men, the gonadal
contribution is greater.41
Elevated androstanediol has been associated with acne in both sexes.
Testosterone (T), Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
Testosterone, the major natural androgen sustains bone density and strength, lean body tissue,
muscle size, muscle strength, erythropoiesis, energy, cognitive function, mood, and sexual
function in men and women.
Produced largely by the Leydig cells of the testes in response to LH from the anterior pituitary,
testosterone is also made in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands in both men and women and
ovaries in women. In women, about half of T comes from conversion of DHEA and
androstenedione in fat and skin, the other half comes from the ovaries and adrenals in response
to pituitary LH, and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), respectively.
Testosterone synthesis includes several intermediates including DHEA and androstenedione.
Testosterone is converted in the target tissues to the potent metabolite dihydrotestosterone DHT,
by the enzyme 5-reductase. The androgenic potency of DHT is three fold higher than T. DHT
exhibits trophic effects on the prostate gland, and mediates androgenic alopecia.
Testosterone levels exhibit circadian variation with levels highest in the early morning. This
circadian variation diminishes with age along with the response of the Leydig cells to pituitary
release of LH. From the age of 30 onwards, total serum testosterone levels decline 1%/year.
9
Men aged 70-80 average levels that are ½ to ⅔ that of men in their 20’s. This age-related decline
in free bioavailable testosterone is often described as andropause, the male “counterpart” to
menopause.
This decline may be associated with age-related muscle loss, loss of libido, osteopenia and
cognitive decline.
Testosterone deficiency in men may manifest with42:
• Infertility due to low sperm count
• Decreased sex drive/libido
• Erectile dysfunction
• Lack of mental firmness and
assertiveness
• Reduced muscle mass, strength
and tone
•
•
•
•
•
•
Prostate hypertrophy
Dysuria, nocturia
Hot flushes followed by chills
Cardiovascular disease
Osteoporosis
Cancer of the prostate
Elevated levels of testosterone in men may manifest with:
Cancer of the testicles or adrenal glands
Testosterone deficiency in women may manifest with43:
• Decreased sex drive/libido
•
• Dyspareunia
• Lack of mental firmness and
assertiveness
•
• Diminished motivation
•
• Persistent fatigue
• Reduced muscle mass, strength
and tone
• Cardiovascular disease
• Osteoporosis
Loss of ovarian
function/oophorectomy (levels of T
and precursor androstenedione may
decline by 50%)
Addison’s disease
Corticosteroids, birth control pills,
oral estrogens used for hormone
replacement therapy (oral estrogens
increase sex hormone binding
globulin (SHBG), which in turn
reduces free T and E2)
Elevated levels of testosterone in women may manifest with:
Cancer of the ovaries or adrenal glands
Elevated levels of T or DHEAS may reveal PCOS
(PCOS may be characterized by irregular periods, anovulation, adult acne, increased waist-to-hip
ratio, hirsutism and male pattern hair loss (from excess DHT production), deepening voice,
ovaries enlarged by cysts, insulin resistance/insulin elevations). Women with PCOS have an
androgenic shift in hormone balance with increased T and cortisol levels and lowered estrogen.44
10
1
Hertoghe, Thierry. (2006). The Hormone Handbook. United Kingdom: International Medical Publications.
Hertoghe, op. cit.
Zumoff, B., Fishman, J., Bradlow, H.L., et al. (1975). Hormone profiles in hormone-dependent cancers. Cancer Research, 35, 3365-3373.
4
Bagli, N.P., Shah, P.N., Mistry, S.S. (1980). The estriol quotient in fibrocystic disease, a high-risk group of breast cancer. Indian J. Cancer, 17(4), 201-204.
5
Goodwin, T.M. (1999). A role for estriol in human labor, term and preterm. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 180(1).
6
Wright, J.V., Schliesman, B., Robinson, L. (1999). Comparative measurements of serum estriol, estradiol, and estrone in non-pregnant, premenopausal women:
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7
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2
3
11
5β-R
Tetrahydrocorticosterone
THB
THF
THA
5α-R: 5α-Reductase
5β-R: 5β-Reductase
HSD: Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
17β-HSD: 17β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
11β-HSD: 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
11β-OH: 11β-Hydroxylase
AR: Aromatase
COMT: Catechol-O-Methyltransferase
21-OH: 21-Hydroxylase
Enzyme Abbreviations:
5α-R
Cortisol
11β-OH
5β-R
Cortisone
THE
α-THF
5β-R
5α-R
Androstenedione
HSD
DHEA
E3
4-OHE1
16α-OHE1
P450
COMT
2-OHE1
© US BioTek Laboratories
4-ME1
4-Methoxyestrone/estradiol
Sulfation/Glucuronidation
2-ME1
2-Methoxyestrone/estradiol
Sulfation/Glucuronidation/
Methylation
COMT
2-Hydroxyestrone/estradiol
17β-HSD
Androstanediol
HSD
E2
AR
17β-Estradiol
T
DHT
5α-R
Testosterone
HSD
Androstenediol
Dihydrotestosterone
17β-HSD
17β-HSD
4-Hydroxyestrone/estradiol
A
Androsterone
HSD
16α-Hydroxyestrone/estradiol
Estriol
E1
Estrone
E
Etiocholanolone
HSD
AR
17β-HSD
17β-HSD
5β-Androstanedione 5α-Androstanedione
P3
DHEAS
Dehydroepiandrosterone
Pregnanetriol
Tetrahydrocortisone
11β-HSD
11-Deoxycortisol
21-OH
Tetrahydrocortisol Allo-Tetrahydrocortisol
Corticosterone
11β-OH
THS
HSD
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone
Tetrahydro-11-dehydrocorticosterone
Aldosterone
P2
Pregnanediol
17-Hydroxypregnenolone
Tetrahydrodeoxycortisol
11-Deoxycorticosterone
21-OH
P
Progesterone
HSD
Pregnenolone
18-Hydroxycorticosterone
Cholesterol
Metabolism of Select Steroid Hormones
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