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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter is devoted to review of related literature of the present study. The review comprises: (1) slogan, (2) syntax involve syntactic form and types of syntactic structure. A. Slogan A slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political, commercial, religious and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose (Surhone, 2010). A slogan is an advertising tag-line or phrase that advertisers create to visually expresses the importance and benefits of their product (Gatbonton: 2011). The word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish and Irish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm (Surhone:2010). The clans of Scotland were groups of related families that joined together, especially to defend against outsiders. In the old days these outsiders might be other clans, but usually they were the English to the south. When it was time to gather members of the clan for a battle, the Scots would shout the sluagh-ghairm, which meant "army cry." It is made up of the Scottish Gaelic word sluagh, meaning "army," and ghairm, meaning "call, cry." This came into English as slogorn and later became slogan. At first slogan meant a "battle cry" or "rallying cry." Later it came 11 12 to be used for "a motto or phrase used by a group to attract attention."(Webster:2007). Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and the vulgar. Often their simple rhetorical nature leaves little room for detail, and as such they serve perhaps more as a social expression of unified purpose, rather than a projection for an intended audience. The characteristics of good slogan according to Gatbonton : 1. Identification. A good slogan must stay consistent with the brand name either obviously stated or strongly implied. It’s better to include the name of your business to it. 2. Memorable. Some of the best taglines or slogans are still being used today, even though they were launched several years ago. 3. Beneficial. Reveal your purpose and benefits of the product by conveying the message in consumer language. Turn bad into good. Suggest the risk of not using the product. Create a positive feeling for the consumers. 4. Differentiation. In an overcrowded market, companies on the same industry need to set themselves apart thru their creative and original tagline or slogan. 5. Keep it simple. Use proven words and short keywords. One word is usually not enough. 13 There are some examples of slogan : Don’t be evil (Google), Share moment, share life (Kodak), I’m lovin’ it (McDonalds), Connecting people (Nokia), Make believe (Sony), Keeps going, going and going (Energizers). B. Syntax Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences. In transformational generative grammar, the syntactic component is one of three main parts of the grammar. This component contains the rules for changing this structures (Richard, 1999:370). Syntax is essential means by which learners can specify the designed relation among words. Thus, the students must recognize several aspects of syntax. First, they must know how single words are combined to form larger syntactic units, for examples, a noun and a verb to form a sentence; a determiner, an adjective, and a noun to make a noun phrase. Second, they must master simple syntactic rules, namely those used to generate the passive or the negative, which modify the order of the constituents or introduce auxiliary verbs or function words where necessary. Third, they must recognize how single syntactic rules are integrated to generate complex sentences. 14 1. Syntactic Structures Study on syntax means we are ready to do syntactic structure analysis. Francis (1958: 292) divides the syntactic structures into four principal groups based on their structural meaning. Those four basic types of syntactic structures are (a) Structure of modification, (b) Structure of predication, (c) Structure of complementation, and (d) Structure of coordination. a) Structure of Modification Structure of modification is structure which has two components named a head and modifier. The modifier has meaning that serves to broaden quality, select, change, describe, or in some other ways affect the meaning of the head. In syntactic structures analysis, structure of modification is represented by an arrow ( ) that points from the modifier toward the head. Structure of modification consist of two immediate constituents, a head and a modifier, whose meaning serves to broaden, qualify, select, change, describe, or in some other way affect the meaning of the head. Noun as Head 15 Nouns appear very frequently as head of structures of modification. The most common noun-modifier is the adjective. The position of adjective can be: (1) Before the noun-between the noun-determiner and the noun. Example: beautiful girl, the gloomy room, his cheerful smile, intense concentration, etc. (2) Come after the noun. This happens under two kinds of circumstances: a) In certain fixed phrases, often from technical vocabularies or familiar quotation. Example: grace abounding, darkness visible, etc. b) When the adjective is not a solitary modifier of the noun, but part of a larger structure that as a whole acts as a noun-modifier. Example: a wish intense beyond belief, a man taller than I thought, etc. Nouns make up a considerable number of the singleword modifier of nouns. These nouns come before the noun they modify. Structure of this short are of two kinds: (a) those in which the modifying noun has the possessive inflection {‘s} called the possessive construction, (b) those in which it appears 16 in the base form or with the plural inflection {-es} called nounadjunct construction. Example: Possessive Noun-Adjunct child’s play child psychology a dog’s life the dog days my father’s house a father image the woman’s doctor the woman doctor A special type of noun-modifier is the appositive. An appositive is a noun, a noun-headed structure of modification, or a structure of coordination made up of nouns or noun-headed structures, modifying a noun head, which it follows. The appositive also has a noun-determiner. Example: His brother, a doctor, was there; also the children, both boys and girls, received presents, etc. When verbs function as modifiers of nouns, they are nearly always marked in one of three ways: (1) by the presentparticiple inflection {-ing1}; (2) by the past participle inflection {-ed2}; or (3) by the infinitive-marker to. Present and past participles functioning as modifiers of nouns may precede or 17 follow their heads. Infinitives marked by to always follow the noun-head. Example: running water, baked potatoes, the man to see, etc. Adverbs are relatively rare as noun-modifiers. When they do appear in this role, adverbs always come immediately after the noun which is the head. The adverbs that function as noun-modifier are mostly those of then- and there-classes. Adverbs of the thus/so-class, particularly those with the derivational suffix {-ly1}, modify only one kind of nouns, those formed from verbs by the derivational suffix {-ing2}. Example: the people here, heaven above, Europe now, his speaking rapidly, etc. In addition to single-word modifiers of nouns, various other structures can function as noun-modifiers. One that we may treat here is the prepositional phrase. In it simple form, this consists of a function word of the class called prepositions and a lexical word, usually but not always a noun, customarily called its object. Together these two form a unit which may function in various ways, one of which is as modifier of a noun. Preposition make up a relatively large class of function words, some of very frequent occurrence, others quite rare. On 18 the basis of their morphemic structure they may be divided into three groups as follows. (1) Simple Prepositions. These have only one base. The most familiar singlemorpheme prepositions are: after from on through as in out till but like over to by near per under down of round up for off since with Preposition with two morphemes, one or both of which are bound: about around between toward above before beyond unlike across behind despite until along below during unto among beside except 19 Preposition with three morphemes, all or all but one bound: Against concerning considering opposite regarding Almost all the simple prepositions may also appear as full parts of speech, usually adverbs. But whenever these words form with an object a closely integrated structure that function as a single unit, they are a prepositions. (2) Compound Preposition. These are prepositions that consist of two or more free bases with or without affixes. They thus belong to the class of compound words. Commonly the first element is an adverb and the second a simple preposition. Some of the most common compound prepositions are the following: across from down from off of together with along with due to onto upon alongside of except for out of up to 20 apart from inside of outside of up with away from instead of over to within back of into throughout without (3) Phrasal Prepositions. These consist of three words: a simple preposition, a noun, and another simple preposition, usually to or of. Some of examples of phrasal prepositions: in regard to by means of on top of on account of in addition to in behalf of in spite of in front of on behalf of The object of the preposition-the lexical word which completes the structure-is usually a noun. Prepositional phrases that modify noun may have other parts of speech beside nouns as object. The object may be a verb or a verbheaded structure of modification. The object of a prepositional phrase may itself be a prepositional phrase. Verb as Head At the outset of our discussion of structures of modification with verb as head, we must make a distinction 21 of considerable importance, though it is usually overlooked in traditional grammar. We must distinguish, that is, between those structures whose head is a verb alone and those whose head is some other type of structure containing a verb. By far the most common single-word modifiers of verbs are adverbs. The common position of an adverb modifying a verb is immediately after it. Certain of them may also appear in the other two possible position: (1) before the verb, (2) between auxiliary and verb or two auxiliaries. Example: (1) he works succesfully (2) he drives rapidly (3) he is moving ahead A simple verb + adverb structure of modification may itself be the head of another structure of modification with an adverb as modifier. Example: (1) he never comes here (2) the train moved ahead slowly (3) the boy seldom walked along home eagerly 22 Certain nouns may function as modifier of verbs. Its position is follow the verb and may have noun-determiners. Since a noun following a verb may also be an object, it becomes necessary to distinguish between these two quite different structure. The test is to replace the noun with one of the substitutes it or them. If this does not alter the structural meaning, the noun is an object of the verb; if it does alter or destroy the structural meaning, te noun is is a modifier of the verb. This contrast appears in the following illustrations: Structure of Modification Structure of Complementation (noun modifies verb) (noun is object of verb) he lived a year he lived his life he walks this way he likes his own way he saw a mile he measured a mile A quite limited number of verbs may have an even more limited number of adjectives as modifier, the resulting structures make up a restricted list of stereotyped expression, of which the following are typical: Example: the children ran wild, the machine ran true, the dog went crazy, the show fell flat. 23 The verbs in structure above are of the type we shall define as intransitive, and that nothing can come between verb and adjective except a qualifier or an adverbial modifier of the adjective. There are also a few types of structure in which a verb may be modified by another verb. The modifying verb may be the present-participle form in {-ing1}, as in: the children came running or the infinitive (to + base form), as in: he lives to eat. Much more common as verb-modifier than nouns, adjectives, or other verbs are prepositional phrase. Their relative frequency as verb-modifiers in ordinary speech and writing is somewhere near the same as that of adverbs. Their position is after the verb, and they may combine with one another and with adverbs to make quite complicated structures of modification. Adjective as Head Adjectives, which usually function as modifier themselves, may also serve as heads of structure of modification. The most common adjective-modifier are the qualifiers, like very, rather, and quite. But all the parts of 24 speech may occasionally function as modifiers of adjectives. After the qualifier, the most frequent modifiers of adjectives are adverbs. The adverbs may comes before the adjective-head. A few verbs may function as adjectivemodifiers. Also, on rare occasions adjectives may be modified by other adjectives. Prepositional phrases are very common adjectivemodifiers, being just about as frequent as adverbs in this function. They come immediately after the adjective head, as in following examples: easy on the eyes good for nothing hopeful of success green as grass stronger than ever Adverb as Head When adverb appear as heads of structures of modification, they may be modified by qualifiers or other adverbs, nouns, or prepositional phrase. The first three of these precede the head ( except the qualifier indeed and 25 enough), and prepositional phrase follow it. The following illustrate these four types of adverb-modifiers: Qualifiers: very easily, rather slowly Adverbs: unusually eagerly, far away Nouns: a foot away, some way up Prepositional phrase: away for a week, behind in his work Function Word as Head The complex combinations of qualifiers are legitimately considered structures of modification in which the last qualifier in the group is the head. For example: the identification of structure “very much more easily” as follows. The head in this structure is “easily”. Next, comes structure “very much more” , in which “very” comes to modify “much” forming structure of modification which later it modify “more” forming a series of structure of modification. Then, it comes as the modifier of the head. Also, prepositions may function as heads of structures of modification and its modifiers are qualifiers, adverbs, and certain nouns as in: 1. Very like a whale 2. A bit under the weather 26 3. Almost beneath notice 4. A mile from home When such modifiers follow the prepositional phrase, the head of the structure is not just the preposition but the whole phrase. Another, noun-determiner may be modified by qualifiers, adverbs, or even prepositional phrases, as in the following examples: 1. Very many people 2. Not a few friends 3. Much more money 4. Almost all people b) Structure of Coordination A structure of coordination consists of two or more syntactically equivalent units joining in a structure which functions as a single unit. The joining is called by coordinators. These following are some coordinators (Francis, 1958: 355) And, but, nor, not, or, rather than, as well as, together with, along with, not (only), but (also), either…or, neither…nor, both…and. (1) Elliptical Structure of Coordination 27 If there are two components which are not syntactically equivalent and it is assumed to make simpler by assuming an imaginary or omitted repetition. For example: (2) I like fresh fish not salted (fish). Split Structures of Coordination It happens when the coordinators of the middle group, such as: rather than, split, and inverted structure. For example: Rather than starve, he chose to eat insects. (a) Correlative Structure of Coordination In the usual structure of coordination in which one of these appears, the first constituent comes between the two parts of the correlatives and the second constituent comes immediately after the second part. For example: I bring not peace but a sword. 28 c) Structure of Predication Structure of predication consist of subject and predicate. Subject The commonest subject are nouns or noun-headed structure of modification. For example: money talks, the weather has changed. The other three parts of speech and structure of modification of which they are head may also function as subject: Adjective : handsome is a handsome does Adverb : never again will be soon enough Verb: to work in New York is my ambition Some other structure that may serve as subject are the following: Prepositional Phrase: to South America is a long trip. Structure of Complementation: to make a good living takes hard work. Structure of Coordination: food and drink can be had here. 29 Structure of Predication: that he did at all has not been proved. When the subject is one of the pronoun I, he, she, we, they, or who, these words has alternative objective-case form me, him, her, us, them, and whom. Normally, when one of these is a subject, it is the nominative form which appears. For examples: He called me in; They have been sent away; Who will volunteer for the job? But when the verb of structure of predication is an infinitive, the objective-case form appears as subject: I asked him to call; We watched them to go. A special type of subject is the function word there: There is a tavern in the town, there were three kings. Predicate Predicate always consist of verb. The predicate also may be a structure of modification with verb as head. For examples: The sun sets in the west; The mail usually comes early in the morning The verb as predicate can be structure of coordination. 30 For examples: We walked and talked; People either like this place or hate it English verbs exhibit formal distinction which can be classed under seven heads. (1) Person All English verbs except the modal auxiliaries have two persons which can be called common and third singular. Verb forms consisting of base form + {-s} inflection are in third-singular person, all others are in the common person. For example: (1) The man walks, the sun sets (2) He fells, she speaks (3) this looks good, that goes here (2) Tense All English verbs except a few auxiliaries (ought, must) have two tense, the common tense (present) and the past tense. The past-tense form consist of the base + the inflectional suffix {ed1}, the common-tense forms are the base alone and the third singular (base + {-s}). 31 (3) Phase All English verbs except a few auxiliaries have two phases, the simple and the perfect. The perfect phase is marked by the use of the various forms of the auxiliary have with the past-participle form of the verb. In addition, certain verbs have a resultative phase, formed by the auxiliary be and the past-participle form of the verb. (4) Aspect All English verbs have three aspects: the simple, the durative, and the inchoative. The simple aspect is unmarked. The durative is formed by the auxiliary be and the present-participle (base + {-ing1}) form of the verb. The inchoative aspect is formed by the auxiliary get and the present-participle form of the verb. (5) Mode All English verbs have a variety of modes. The modes can be classified on the basis of form into two groups: (1) those formed by the modal auxiliaries with the base form of the verb, and (2) those formed by certain other auxiliaries with the infinitive (to + base) form of the verb. (6) Voice English verbs have two voices, the normal or active voice and the passive voice. Passive voice forms consist of 32 some form of the auxiliary be with the past-participle form of the verb. (7) Status English verbs have four statuses, the affirmative, the interrogative, the negative, and the negative-interrogative. The interrogative status is marked by a change in word order, involving the inversion of the subject and the auxiliary. d) Structure of Complementation Structure of complementation consist of a verbal element and a complement. The verbal element may be a simple verb-phrase, an infinitive, a structure of modification with verb as head, or a structure of coordination. These following are the illustrations of structure of complementation: (a) Simple verb as the verbal element For example: We are learning the holy Quran. (b) Infinitive For example: A time to be thankful for (c) Structure of modification as the verbal element For example: You never in your life said that. 33 (d) Structure of coordination as the verbal element For example: He caught and cared of the beautiful. (1) Verbal Elements Types of verbal elements based on the types of structure in which they found and by certain other formal indications are:. (a) Linking Verbs Linking verbs are thought of a structural link between subject and complement. Like linking verbs, they have no passive forms. (b) Intransitive Verbs Intransitive verbs are verbs which may appear in the active voice as complete predicate without any complement. Like linking verbs, they have no passive form. For example: become, seem, remain, look, sound, smell. (c) Transitive Verbs Transitive verbs are verbs which always have a complement when in the active voice, and which have passive forms. The followings are the examples: 34 Linking : The weather turned cold, the wind blew a gale Intransitive : The earth turns, the wind is blowing Transitive : The car turned the corner, the musician blew the trumpet The formal distinctions between these three types of verbs may be summarized as follows: (1) linking verb : has complement but no passive (2) intransitive verb : has neither complement nor passive (3) transitive verb : has both complement and passive (2) Complement Complements are appearing in structure of complementation. Based on types of verbal elements which have their own kind of complement, there are two kinds of complements. (a) Subjective Complement These are complements which are appearing with linking verbs. It may be single 35 words, with or without related function words or they may be structures of varying degrees of complexity, containing all sorts of structures within them. Some various kinds of simple subjective complements based on Francis’ book (1958: 346-348) are: (1) Noun : The girl is a student. (2) Function noun : Ripeness is all. (3) Adjective : The garden is beautiful. (4) Adverb : The time was yesterday. (5) Verb Infinitive : His dream is to write. Present participle : Her trade is reading. Past participle : This meat is canned. Prepositional phrase : The bus is on time. Some various kinds of complex structures function as subjective complements are: (1) Structures of modification : His dream is to retire peacefully to France. 36 (2) Structures of coordination : The night was dark, gloomy, and cold. (3) Structures of complementation: His hobby is reading novel. (4) Structures of predication : The problem is that she does not want to do it. (b) Objects It is happened if there are complements appearing with transitive verbs. Complements with transitive verbs are objects, which are of three kinds: direct object, indirect object, and objective complements. Direct Object (DO) These are complements which are appearing with a transitive verb. The direct object can be noun, pronoun, function noun, verb (infinitive and present participle) or even various more complex structures. Francis (1958: 348349) determines some single-word as direct objects, they are: Noun : He finds happiness. 37 Pronoun Function noun : She gives some. Verb : I saw him. Infinitive : You come to go. Present participle : I love writing. Adverb : The lion wants out. Some various more complex structures function as direct objects are: Structures of modification : They like : The class walk in the rain. Structures of coordination needs a new blackboard and cupboard. Structures of complementation: The cat dislikes eating vegetables. Structures of predication: I guess he is here. Indirect Object (IO) The indirect object or objective complement is the second objects that appear after the object of a 38 transitive verb. Yet, structures of this sort are thus potentially ambiguous. The indirect objects are always nouns, noun-headed structure of modification or structure of coordination with noun constituents. Based on Francis‟ view (1958: 349352) Noun : She gives her mother three gifts.” IO DO Function noun : We gave each a present.” IO DO Pronoun: The agent sold them a property.” IO Structure of modification DO : She makes a hungry beggar fried rice.” IO DO Structure of Coordination : We give our mother and father a bouquet. IO DO 39 (b) Objective complement Certain complements consisting of two objects do not fit the indirect and direct object pattern. If a complement consisting of two objects do not meet the requirements for the indirect + direct object structure. Its second object is an objective complement. Objective complements may be nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs (in past participle form), preposition phrase, structure of modification, or structure of coordination. 2. Syntactic Categories According to Fromkin (2000:127), there are some syntactic categories. They are sentence, phrase (noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adjective phrase and adverb phrase) and part of speech (determiner, noun, preposition, adverb, auxiliary verb). In this thesis, we only discuss phrase and sentence. a. Phrase Phrase is a construction that is constructed by two or more words, in a form of basic sentence pattern or not (Parera, 2000: 32). According to Chaer (2003:222), phrase is defined as a grammatical unit in form of unity of nonpredicative words or usually called a unity of word which fulfil one of syntactic 40 function in a sentence. Based on Arifin (2008: 18), phrase is a grammatical construction which consist of two words or more . Some categories of phrases: 1) Noun Phrase (NP) Noun Phrase is a group of words with a noun or pronoun as the main part (the head). The noun phrase may consist of only one word or it may be long and complex (Richard, 1992: 251). Noun phrase often contain some form of a noun or proper noun (Fromkin,2000: 127). Noun Phrase (NP) can consist of a single noun or pronoun like Anthony or people. Just as basic is a phrase consisting of a noun head word preceded by a determiner. Example: the house, a glass, her book. Though, the head word of noun phrase can be modified by other words. Noun itself is defined as the name of a person, place, quality or thing. Based on Phrase-structure rules there are some various patern of noun phrase: a) NP N ` b) NP det N c) NP det N PP (NP consists of noun) (NP consists of det + Noun) (NP consists of det + N + Prepositional Phrase) 41 d) NP det A N (NP consists of det + adjective + N) These four rules, or expansions can be combined into one rule. To do that, parentheses in placed around optional elements, or those that don’t need to occur. The combine rule looks like this: e) NP (det) (A) N (PP) Rule (e) can be expanded into four separate rules (ad). because determiner, adjective, and prepositional phrase are optional, we can write NP not only as a, b, c, d, but also in other ways: f) NP A N g) NP det A N PP 2) Verb Phrase (VP) Verb phrase is the part of a sentence which contains the main verb and also any object(s), complement(s), and adverbial(s) (Richard, 1992: 399). Verb phrases always contain verb and may contain other categories such as noun phrase, or prepositional phrase. Auxiliaries are also used with verbs to form verb phrases. The following are some expansions of verb phrase: 42 a) VP V b) VP V NP c) VP V NP PP d) VP V (Adv) 3) Preposition Phrase (PP) Prepositional phrase is the phrase so formed, consisting of a preposition and its complement (Richard, 1992:286). Based o phrase structure rules, prepositional phrase has one pattern: PP Prep (NP) The complements of preposition is noun or pronoun. Example: In the hospital. In is the preposition and the hospital is noun phrase consists of determiner “the” and noun is defined as a name of place “hospital”. 4) Adjective Phrase (Adj P) Adjective Phrase (Adj P) is an adjective or any group of words substitute for an adjective. The ideal adjective phrase consists of a single adjective as like short in the story is short. a) AP (adv) A b) AP A (adv) 43 b. Sentence Sentence is the main component in syntax study. Oftentimes we find the expression say that syntax is a branch of linguistic that studies about sentence or sentence structure. Based on Oxford dictionary, the definition sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually containing a subject and a verb. Frank (1972: 220) states that sentence are a full predication containing a subject plus a predicate with a finite verb. Sentences are generally classified in two ways, one by types and by the number of formal predications. The classifications by types are: 1) Declarative sentences (Statement) In a declarative sentence the subject and predicate have normal word order. The sentence ends with a period (called full stop in British English) in writing and a drop in pitch in speech. Example: The child ate his dinner. 2) Interrogative Sentences (Questions) In an interrogative sentence the subject and auxiliary are often reserved. The sentence ends with a question mark (or, interrogation point) in writing. Example: Did the child eat his dinner? 44 3) Imperative sentences (Requests, Commands) In an imperative sentence only the predicate is expressed. The simple form of the verb is used, regardless of person or tense. The imperative sentence ends with a period in writing. Example: Eat your dinner. 4) Exclamatory sentences (Exclamations) The exclamatory phrase is followed by the subject and the balance of the predicate. In writing the exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation mark (or, exclamation point). Sometimes a period is used to lessen the force of the exclamation. Example: What a good dinner that was! The classification of sentences by number of full predications This classification is based on the number and kind of clauses within a sentence. 1) Simple sentence Such sentences have only one full predication in the form of an independent clause. Example: The man stole the jewelry. 45 2) Compound sentences Such sentences have two or more full predication in the form of independent clauses. Example: The man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his home. 3) Complex sentences Such sentences also have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent clause or main clause that is similar to the form of the simple sentence, and one or more of these are independent clauses (or,subordinate clauses). Example: the man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home. 4) Compound-Complex sentences Compound-Complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: the man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his home until he could safely get out of town. C. Speech Act In speech act theory language is seen a form of acting. The study of speech act concerns with two linguistics sides, namely form and function (Renkema, 1993: 21). When somebody speaks, he will produce utterances as linguistics form, in other hand his utterance has function to do an act. For example: “I will go to campus at 8. am”. From this utterance, the 46 speaker has made an action of “promise” via language to go to campus at 8 a.m. According to Searle in Wardhaugh (1986: 277) we can perform at least three different kinds of speech acts when we speak. There are utterance acts, propositional acts, and illocutionary acts. Utterance acts were called locutionary acts by Austin who also used the term illocutionary acts and a further the term perlocutionary acts. Utterance acts refer to the fact that we must use words and sentences if we say something. Propositional acts are those matters having to do with referring and predicting: we use language to refer to matters in the world and to make prediction about such matters. Illocutionary acts have to do with the speaker’s intention such as stating, questioning, promising, and commanding. Then perlocutionary acts, the effect of utterances on hearer’s responses. Types of Speech Acts Searle (1976) in an article “A Classification of Illocutionary Acts” uses the three factors-illocutionary force, direction of fit, and expressed psychological state-as the basis for classifying all speech acts. He identifies six classes: 1. Directives. A directive speech act is an attempt by speaker to get hearer to do something. Example of directives are ordering, commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, entreating, daring, 47 suggesting, inviting, questioning, insisting and permitting. Note that the action must be future and voluntary, because it is impossible to ask someone to perform an action in the past or to do something which is not a matter of human will. e.g. ; Give me your hand, please! Could you lend me a book, please! The expressed psychological state is that speaker wants hearer to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word, for speaker (S) is attempting to get the world resemble his or her words. 2. Commisives In a commisives speech act, speaker commits himself or herself to the performance of an action. Examples of commisives are promising, pledging, threatening, guaranteeing, agreeing, consenting and refusing. Again, the promised action must be future and voluntary. The examples are; I’ll accompany you going to the market tomorrow If you disobey the rule, I will give you a punishment. The expressed psychological state is that speaker intends to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word. 3. Representatives (also known as “Assertives”) 48 In this type of speech act, speaker represents a state of affairs. Examples of representatives are affirming, declaring, describing, claiming, stating, explaining, classifying, insisting, emphasizing, and predicting. A representative commits speaker to the truth of the preposition. The expressed psychological state is one of belief. The direction of fit is word-to-world. The examples are: • Dad : “He is my son” • I tell you that Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia 4. Expressives In an expressive speech act, speaker expresses a psychological state about the situation or state of affairs denoted by the preposition. Examples of expressives are thanking, apologizing, consoling, congratulating, greeting, deploring, and welcoming. The propositional content is something which affects speaker or hearer. In using expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (feeling). e.g. I’m really sorry! Congratulation for your success! Thank you for being helped, Nick! 49 5. Verdictives Speaker expresses something. Example of a value judgment rates verdictives are assessing, ranking, rating, estimating, grading, diagnosing, measuring. or Verdictives may be calculating, and a subcategory of representatives since the expressed psychological state of the speaker is belief in the value judgments, and the direction of fit is word-to-world. The wide of our campus is around 2 hectare. 6. Declaratives Declaratives are the prototypical speech acts. Here the speaker brings about a change a world by uttering a locutionary act. The example of declaratives are declaring war, seconding a motion, adjourning a meeting, firing, nominating, betting, baptizing, finding guilty or innocent, divorcing arresting, and resigning. E.g. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife. Bush : Attack!, Irak.