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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter is devoted to review of related literature of the present study.
The review comprises: (1) slogan, (2) syntax involve syntactic form and types of
syntactic structure.
A.
Slogan
A slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political,
commercial, religious and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea
or purpose (Surhone, 2010). A slogan is an advertising tag-line or phrase
that advertisers create to visually expresses the importance and benefits of
their product (Gatbonton: 2011).
The word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an
Anglicisation
of
the
Scottish
and
Irish
Gaelic
sluagh-ghairm
(Surhone:2010). The clans of Scotland were groups of related families that
joined together, especially to defend against outsiders. In the old days these
outsiders might be other clans, but usually they were the English to the
south. When it was time to gather members of the clan for a battle, the
Scots would shout the sluagh-ghairm, which meant "army cry." It is made
up of the Scottish Gaelic word sluagh, meaning "army," and ghairm,
meaning "call, cry." This came into English as slogorn and later became
slogan. At first slogan meant a "battle cry" or "rallying cry." Later it came
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to be used for "a motto or phrase used by a group to attract
attention."(Webster:2007).
Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and the
vulgar. Often their simple rhetorical nature leaves little room for detail, and
as such they serve perhaps more as a social expression of unified purpose,
rather than a projection for an intended audience.
The characteristics of good slogan according to Gatbonton :
1. Identification. A good slogan must stay consistent with the brand name
either obviously stated or strongly implied. It’s better to include the name
of your business to it.
2. Memorable. Some of the best taglines or slogans are still being used
today, even though they were launched several years ago.
3. Beneficial. Reveal your purpose and benefits of the product by conveying
the message in consumer language. Turn bad into good. Suggest the risk of
not using the product. Create a positive feeling for the consumers.
4. Differentiation. In an overcrowded market, companies on the same
industry need to set themselves apart thru their creative and original
tagline or slogan.
5. Keep it simple. Use proven words and short keywords. One word is
usually not enough.
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There are some examples of slogan : Don’t be evil (Google), Share
moment, share life (Kodak), I’m lovin’ it (McDonalds), Connecting people
(Nokia), Make believe (Sony), Keeps going, going and going (Energizers).
B.
Syntax
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that is concerned with the study of
the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. Syntax is the study
of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the
formation of sentences. In transformational generative grammar, the
syntactic component is one of three main parts of the grammar. This
component contains the rules for changing this structures (Richard,
1999:370).
Syntax is essential means by which learners can specify the
designed relation among words. Thus, the students must recognize several
aspects of syntax. First, they must know how single words are combined to
form larger syntactic units, for examples, a noun and a verb to form a
sentence; a determiner, an adjective, and a noun to make a noun phrase.
Second, they must master simple syntactic rules, namely those used to
generate the passive or the negative, which modify the order of the
constituents or introduce auxiliary verbs or function words where
necessary. Third, they must recognize how single syntactic rules are
integrated to generate complex sentences.
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1.
Syntactic Structures
Study on syntax means we are ready to do syntactic structure
analysis. Francis (1958: 292) divides the syntactic structures into four
principal groups based on their structural meaning. Those four basic
types of syntactic structures are (a) Structure of modification, (b)
Structure of predication, (c) Structure of complementation, and (d)
Structure of coordination.
a)
Structure of Modification
Structure of modification is structure which has two
components named a head and modifier. The modifier has
meaning that serves to broaden quality, select, change,
describe, or in some other ways affect the meaning of the head.
In syntactic structures analysis, structure of modification is
represented by an arrow ( 
) that points from the modifier
toward the head.
Structure of modification consist of two immediate
constituents, a head and a modifier, whose meaning serves to
broaden, qualify, select, change, describe, or in some other way
affect the meaning of the head.
Noun as Head
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Nouns appear very frequently as head of structures of
modification. The most common noun-modifier is the
adjective. The position of adjective can be:
(1) Before the noun-between the noun-determiner and the
noun.
Example: beautiful girl, the gloomy room, his cheerful
smile, intense concentration, etc.
(2) Come after the noun. This happens under two kinds of
circumstances:
a) In
certain
fixed
phrases,
often
from
technical
vocabularies or familiar quotation.
Example: grace abounding, darkness visible, etc.
b) When the adjective is not a solitary modifier of the noun,
but part of a larger structure that as a whole acts as a
noun-modifier.
Example: a wish intense beyond belief, a man taller
than I thought, etc.
Nouns make up a considerable number of the singleword modifier of nouns. These nouns come before the noun
they modify. Structure of this short are of two kinds: (a) those
in which the modifying noun has the possessive inflection {‘s}
called the possessive construction, (b) those in which it appears
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in the base form or with the plural inflection {-es} called nounadjunct construction.
Example:
Possessive
Noun-Adjunct
child’s play
child psychology
a dog’s life
the dog days
my father’s house
a father image
the woman’s doctor
the woman doctor
A special type of noun-modifier is the appositive. An
appositive is a noun, a noun-headed structure of modification,
or a structure of coordination made up of nouns or noun-headed
structures, modifying a noun head, which it follows. The
appositive also has a noun-determiner.
Example: His brother, a doctor, was there; also the children,
both boys and girls, received presents, etc.
When verbs function as modifiers of nouns, they are
nearly always marked in one of three ways: (1) by the presentparticiple inflection {-ing1}; (2) by the past participle inflection
{-ed2}; or (3) by the infinitive-marker to. Present and past
participles functioning as modifiers of nouns may precede or
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follow their heads. Infinitives marked by to always follow the
noun-head. Example: running water, baked potatoes, the man to
see, etc.
Adverbs are relatively rare as noun-modifiers. When
they do appear in this role, adverbs always come immediately
after the noun which is the head. The adverbs that function as
noun-modifier are mostly those of then- and there-classes.
Adverbs of the thus/so-class, particularly those with the
derivational suffix {-ly1}, modify only one kind of nouns,
those formed from verbs by the derivational suffix {-ing2}.
Example: the people here, heaven above, Europe now, his
speaking rapidly, etc.
In addition to single-word modifiers of nouns, various
other structures can function as noun-modifiers. One that we
may treat here is the prepositional phrase. In it simple form,
this consists of a function word of the class called prepositions
and a lexical word, usually but not always a noun, customarily
called its object. Together these two form a unit which may
function in various ways, one of which is as modifier of a noun.
Preposition make up a relatively large class of function
words, some of very frequent occurrence, others quite rare. On
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the basis of their morphemic structure they may be divided into
three groups as follows.
(1) Simple Prepositions.
These have only one base. The most familiar singlemorpheme prepositions are:
after
from
on
through
as
in
out
till
but
like
over
to
by
near
per
under
down
of
round
up
for
off
since
with
Preposition with two morphemes, one or both of which are
bound:
about
around
between
toward
above
before
beyond
unlike
across
behind
despite
until
along
below
during
unto
among
beside
except
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Preposition with three morphemes, all or all but one bound:
Against
concerning
considering
opposite
regarding
Almost all the simple prepositions may also appear
as full parts of speech, usually adverbs. But whenever these
words form with an object a closely integrated structure
that function as a single unit, they are a prepositions.
(2) Compound Preposition.
These are prepositions that consist of two or more
free bases with or without affixes. They thus belong to the
class of compound words. Commonly the first element is an
adverb and the second a simple preposition. Some of the
most common compound prepositions are the following:
across from
down from
off of
together with
along with
due to
onto
upon
alongside of
except for
out of
up to
20
apart from
inside of
outside of
up with
away from
instead of
over to
within
back of
into
throughout
without
(3) Phrasal Prepositions.
These consist of three words: a simple preposition, a
noun, and another simple preposition, usually to or of. Some
of examples of phrasal prepositions:
in regard to
by means of
on top of
on account of
in addition to
in behalf of
in spite of
in front of
on behalf of
The object of the preposition-the lexical word which
completes the structure-is usually a noun. Prepositional
phrases that modify noun may have other parts of speech
beside nouns as object. The object may be a verb or a verbheaded structure of modification. The object of a
prepositional phrase may itself be a prepositional phrase.
Verb as Head
At the outset of our discussion of structures of
modification with verb as head, we must make a distinction
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of considerable importance, though it is usually overlooked
in traditional grammar. We must distinguish, that is,
between those structures whose head is a verb alone and
those whose head is some other type of structure containing
a verb.
By far the most common single-word modifiers of
verbs are adverbs. The common position of an adverb
modifying a verb is immediately after it. Certain of them
may also appear in the other two possible position: (1)
before the verb, (2) between auxiliary and verb or two
auxiliaries.
Example: (1) he works succesfully
(2) he drives rapidly
(3) he is moving ahead
A simple verb + adverb structure of modification
may itself be the head of another structure of modification
with an adverb as modifier.
Example: (1) he never comes here
(2) the train moved ahead slowly
(3) the boy seldom walked along home eagerly
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Certain nouns may function as modifier of verbs. Its
position is follow the verb and may have noun-determiners.
Since a noun following a verb may also be an object, it
becomes necessary to distinguish between these two quite
different structure. The test is to replace the noun with one
of the substitutes it or them. If this does not alter the
structural meaning, the noun is an object of the verb; if it
does alter or destroy the structural meaning, te noun is is a
modifier of the verb. This contrast appears in the following
illustrations:
Structure of Modification
Structure of Complementation
(noun modifies verb)
(noun is object of verb)
he lived a year
he lived his life
he walks this way
he likes his own way
he saw a mile
he measured a mile
A quite limited number of verbs may have an even
more limited number of adjectives as modifier, the resulting
structures make up a restricted list of stereotyped
expression, of which the following are typical:
Example: the children ran wild, the machine ran true, the
dog went crazy, the show fell flat.
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The verbs in structure above are of the type we shall
define as intransitive, and that nothing can come between
verb and adjective except a qualifier or an adverbial
modifier of the adjective.
There are also a few types of structure in which a
verb may be modified by another verb. The modifying verb
may be the present-participle form in {-ing1}, as in: the
children came running or the infinitive (to + base form), as
in: he lives to eat.
Much more common as verb-modifier than nouns,
adjectives, or other verbs are prepositional phrase. Their
relative frequency as verb-modifiers in ordinary speech and
writing is somewhere near the same as that of adverbs.
Their position is after the verb, and they may combine with
one another and with adverbs to make quite complicated
structures of modification.
Adjective as Head
Adjectives, which usually function as modifier
themselves, may also serve as heads of structure of
modification. The most common adjective-modifier are the
qualifiers, like very, rather, and quite. But all the parts of
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speech may occasionally function as modifiers of
adjectives.
After the qualifier, the most frequent modifiers of
adjectives are adverbs. The adverbs may comes before the
adjective-head. A few verbs may function as adjectivemodifiers. Also, on rare occasions adjectives may be
modified by other adjectives.
Prepositional phrases are very common adjectivemodifiers, being just about as frequent as adverbs in this
function. They come immediately after the adjective head,
as in following examples:
easy on the eyes
good for nothing
hopeful of success
green as grass
stronger than ever
Adverb as Head
When adverb appear as heads of structures of
modification, they may be modified by qualifiers or other
adverbs, nouns, or prepositional phrase. The first three of
these precede the head ( except the qualifier indeed and
25
enough), and prepositional phrase follow it. The following
illustrate these four types of adverb-modifiers:
Qualifiers: very easily, rather slowly
Adverbs: unusually eagerly, far away
Nouns: a foot away, some way up
Prepositional phrase: away for a week, behind in his work
Function Word as Head
The complex combinations of qualifiers are
legitimately considered structures of modification in which
the last qualifier in the group is the head. For example: the
identification of structure “very much more easily” as
follows. The head in this structure is “easily”. Next, comes
structure “very much more” , in which “very” comes to
modify “much” forming structure of modification which
later it modify “more” forming a series of structure of
modification. Then, it comes as the modifier of the head.
Also, prepositions may function as heads of
structures of modification and its modifiers are qualifiers,
adverbs, and certain nouns as in:
1. Very like a whale
2. A bit under the weather
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3. Almost beneath notice
4. A mile from home
When such modifiers follow the prepositional
phrase, the head of the structure is not just the preposition
but the whole phrase.
Another, noun-determiner may be modified by
qualifiers, adverbs, or even prepositional phrases, as in the
following examples:
1. Very many people
2. Not a few friends
3. Much more money
4. Almost all people
b)
Structure of Coordination
A structure of coordination consists of two or more
syntactically equivalent units joining in a structure which
functions as a single unit. The joining is called by coordinators.
These following are some coordinators (Francis, 1958: 355)
And, but, nor, not, or, rather than, as well as, together
with,
along with,
not
(only), but
(also), either…or,
neither…nor, both…and.
(1)
Elliptical Structure of Coordination
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If there are two components which are not
syntactically equivalent and it is assumed to make
simpler by assuming an imaginary or omitted
repetition.
For example:
(2)
I like fresh fish not salted (fish).
Split Structures of Coordination
It happens when the coordinators of the middle
group, such as: rather than, split, and inverted
structure.
For example: Rather than starve, he chose to eat
insects.
(a)
Correlative Structure of Coordination
In the usual structure of coordination in
which one of these appears, the first constituent
comes between the two parts of the correlatives
and the second constituent comes immediately
after the second part.
For example: I bring not peace but a sword.
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c)
Structure of Predication
Structure of predication consist of subject and predicate.
Subject
The commonest subject are nouns or noun-headed
structure of modification. For example: money talks, the
weather has changed.
The other three parts of speech and structure of
modification of which they are head may also function as
subject:
 Adjective : handsome is a handsome does
 Adverb
: never again will be soon enough
 Verb:
to work in New York is my ambition
Some other structure that may serve as subject are the
following:

Prepositional Phrase: to South America is a long trip.

Structure of Complementation: to make a good living
takes hard work.

Structure of Coordination: food and drink can be had
here.
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
Structure of Predication: that he did at all has not been
proved.
When the subject is one of the pronoun I, he, she, we,
they, or who, these words has alternative objective-case form
me, him, her, us, them, and whom. Normally, when one of these
is a subject, it is the nominative form which appears.
For examples: He called me in; They have been sent away;
Who will volunteer for the job?
But when the verb of structure of predication is an
infinitive, the objective-case form appears as subject: I asked
him to call; We watched them to go.
A special type of subject is the function word there:
There is a tavern in the town, there were three kings.
Predicate
Predicate always consist of verb. The predicate also
may be a structure of modification with verb as head.
For examples: The sun sets in the west; The mail usually comes
early in the morning
The verb as predicate can be structure of coordination.
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For examples: We walked and talked; People either like this
place or hate it
English verbs exhibit formal distinction which can be
classed under seven heads.
(1) Person
All English verbs except the modal auxiliaries have
two persons which can be called common and third
singular. Verb forms consisting of base form + {-s}
inflection are in third-singular person, all others are in the
common person.
For example: (1) The man walks, the sun sets
(2) He fells, she speaks
(3) this looks good, that goes here
(2) Tense
All English verbs except a few auxiliaries (ought,
must) have two tense, the common tense (present) and the
past tense. The past-tense form consist of the base + the
inflectional suffix {ed1}, the common-tense forms are the
base alone and the third singular (base + {-s}).
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(3) Phase
All English verbs except a few auxiliaries have two
phases, the simple and the perfect. The perfect phase is
marked by the use of the various forms of the auxiliary
have with the past-participle form of the verb. In addition,
certain verbs have a resultative phase, formed by the
auxiliary be and the past-participle form of the verb.
(4) Aspect
All English verbs have three aspects: the simple, the
durative, and the inchoative. The simple aspect is
unmarked. The durative is formed by the auxiliary be and
the present-participle (base + {-ing1}) form of the verb. The
inchoative aspect is formed by the auxiliary get and the
present-participle form of the verb.
(5) Mode
All English verbs have a variety of modes. The
modes can be classified on the basis of form into two
groups: (1) those formed by the modal auxiliaries with the
base form of the verb, and (2) those formed by certain other
auxiliaries with the infinitive (to + base) form of the verb.
(6) Voice
English verbs have two voices, the normal or active
voice and the passive voice. Passive voice forms consist of
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some form of the auxiliary be with the past-participle form
of the verb.
(7) Status
English verbs have four statuses, the affirmative, the
interrogative, the negative, and the negative-interrogative.
The interrogative status is marked by a change in word
order, involving the inversion of the subject and the
auxiliary.
d)
Structure of Complementation
Structure of complementation consist of a verbal
element and a complement. The verbal element may be a
simple verb-phrase, an infinitive, a structure of modification
with verb as head, or a structure of coordination.
These following are the illustrations of structure of
complementation:
(a)
Simple verb as the verbal element
For example: We are learning the holy Quran.
(b)
Infinitive
For example: A time to be thankful for
(c)
Structure of modification as the verbal element
For example: You never in your life said that.
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(d)
Structure of coordination as the verbal element
For example: He caught and cared of the beautiful.
(1)
Verbal Elements
Types of verbal elements based on the types of
structure in which they found and by certain other formal
indications are:.
(a) Linking Verbs
Linking verbs are thought of a structural link
between subject and complement. Like linking
verbs, they have no passive forms.
(b) Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs are verbs which may
appear in the active voice as complete predicate
without any complement. Like linking verbs, they
have no passive form. For example: become, seem,
remain, look, sound, smell.
(c) Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs are verbs which always have
a complement when in the active voice, and which
have passive forms.
The followings are the examples:
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Linking
: The weather turned cold, the wind
blew a gale
Intransitive
: The earth turns, the wind is blowing
Transitive
: The car turned the corner, the
musician blew the trumpet
The formal distinctions between these three types
of verbs may be summarized as follows:
(1)
linking verb
:
has
complement
but
no
passive
(2)
intransitive verb
: has neither complement nor
passive
(3) transitive verb
: has both complement and
passive
(2)
Complement
Complements are appearing in structure of
complementation. Based on types of verbal elements
which have their own kind of complement, there are
two kinds of complements.
(a)
Subjective Complement
These
are
complements
which
are
appearing with linking verbs. It may be single
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words, with or without related function words or
they may be structures of varying degrees of
complexity, containing all sorts of structures
within them. Some various kinds of simple
subjective complements based on Francis’ book
(1958: 346-348) are:
(1) Noun
: The girl is a student.
(2) Function noun : Ripeness is all.
(3) Adjective
: The garden is beautiful.
(4) Adverb
: The time was yesterday.
(5) Verb
Infinitive
: His dream is to write.
Present participle
: Her trade is reading.
Past participle
: This meat is canned.
Prepositional phrase : The bus is on time.
Some various kinds of complex structures
function as subjective complements are:
(1)
Structures of modification : His dream is
to retire peacefully to France.
36
(2)
Structures of coordination :
The
night
was dark, gloomy, and cold.
(3)
Structures of complementation: His hobby
is reading novel.
(4)
Structures of predication
: The problem
is that she does not want to do it.
(b)
Objects
It
is
happened
if
there
are
complements appearing with transitive verbs.
Complements with transitive verbs are objects,
which are of three kinds: direct object, indirect
object, and objective complements.
Direct Object (DO)
These
are
complements
which
are
appearing with a transitive verb. The direct object
can be noun, pronoun, function noun, verb
(infinitive and present participle) or even various
more complex structures. Francis (1958: 348349) determines some single-word as direct
objects, they are:

Noun
: He finds happiness.
37

Pronoun

Function noun : She gives some.

Verb
: I saw him.
Infinitive
: You come to go.
Present participle
: I love writing.
Adverb
: The lion wants out.
Some various more complex structures function
as direct objects are:

Structures of modification
:
They
like
:
The
class
walk in the rain.

Structures of coordination
needs a new blackboard and cupboard.

Structures of complementation: The cat
dislikes eating vegetables.

Structures of predication: I guess he is here.
Indirect Object (IO)
The indirect object or objective complement
is the second objects that appear after the object of a
38
transitive verb. Yet, structures of this sort are thus
potentially ambiguous. The indirect objects are
always
nouns,
noun-headed
structure
of
modification or structure of coordination with noun
constituents. Based on Francis‟ view (1958: 349352)
 Noun : She gives her mother three gifts.”
IO
DO
 Function noun : We gave each a present.”
IO
DO
 Pronoun: The agent sold them a property.”
IO
 Structure of modification
DO
:
She makes a hungry beggar fried rice.”
IO
DO
 Structure of Coordination
:
 We give our mother and father a bouquet.
IO
DO
39
(b) Objective complement
Certain complements consisting of two
objects do not fit the indirect and direct object
pattern. If a complement consisting of two objects
do not meet the requirements for the indirect + direct
object structure. Its second object is an objective
complement. Objective complements may be nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, verbs (in past participle form),
preposition phrase, structure of modification, or
structure of coordination.
2. Syntactic Categories
According to Fromkin (2000:127), there are some syntactic
categories. They are sentence, phrase (noun phrase, verb phrase,
prepositional phrase, adjective phrase and adverb phrase) and part of
speech (determiner, noun, preposition, adverb, auxiliary verb). In this
thesis, we only discuss phrase and sentence.
a.
Phrase
Phrase is a construction that is constructed by two or
more words, in a form of basic sentence pattern or not (Parera,
2000: 32). According to Chaer (2003:222), phrase is defined as
a grammatical unit in form of unity of nonpredicative words or
usually called a unity of word which fulfil one of syntactic
40
function in a sentence. Based on Arifin (2008: 18), phrase is a
grammatical construction which consist of two words or more .
Some categories of phrases:
1) Noun Phrase (NP)
Noun Phrase is a group of words with a noun or
pronoun as the main part (the head). The noun phrase may
consist of only one word or it may be long and complex
(Richard, 1992: 251). Noun phrase often contain some form
of a noun or proper noun (Fromkin,2000: 127).
Noun Phrase (NP) can consist of a single noun or
pronoun like Anthony or people. Just as basic is a phrase
consisting of a noun head word preceded by a determiner.
Example: the house, a glass, her book. Though, the head
word of noun phrase can be modified by other words. Noun
itself is defined as the name of a person, place, quality or
thing.
Based on Phrase-structure rules there are some
various patern of noun phrase:
a) NP  N
`
b) NP  det N
c)
NP  det N PP
(NP consists of noun)
(NP consists of det + Noun)
(NP consists of det + N +
Prepositional Phrase)
41
d) NP det A N
(NP
consists
of
det
+
adjective + N)
These four rules, or expansions can be combined
into one rule. To do that, parentheses in placed
around optional elements, or those that don’t need to
occur. The combine rule looks like this:
e) NP (det) (A) N (PP)
Rule (e) can be expanded into four separate rules (ad). because determiner, adjective, and prepositional
phrase are optional, we can write NP not only as a,
b, c, d, but also in other ways:
f) NP A N
g) NP det A N PP
2)
Verb Phrase (VP)
Verb phrase is the part of a sentence which
contains the main verb and also any object(s),
complement(s), and adverbial(s) (Richard, 1992: 399).
Verb phrases always contain verb and may contain
other categories such as noun phrase, or prepositional
phrase. Auxiliaries are also used with verbs to form
verb phrases.
The following are some expansions of verb
phrase:
42
a) VP V
b) VP V NP
c) VP V NP PP
d) VP V (Adv)
3)
Preposition Phrase (PP)
Prepositional phrase is the phrase so formed,
consisting of a preposition and its complement
(Richard, 1992:286). Based o phrase structure rules,
prepositional phrase has one pattern:
PP Prep (NP)
The complements of preposition is noun or pronoun.
Example: In the hospital. In is the preposition and the
hospital is noun phrase consists of determiner “the” and
noun is defined as a name of place “hospital”.
4)
Adjective Phrase (Adj P)
Adjective Phrase (Adj P) is an adjective or any
group of words substitute for an adjective. The ideal
adjective phrase consists of a single adjective as like
short in the story is short.
a) AP  (adv) A
b) AP A (adv)
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b. Sentence
Sentence is the main component in syntax study.
Oftentimes we find the expression say that syntax is a branch of
linguistic that studies about sentence or sentence structure. Based
on Oxford dictionary, the definition sentence is a set of words
expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually containing a
subject and a verb. Frank (1972: 220) states that sentence are a full
predication containing a subject plus a predicate with a finite verb.
Sentences are generally classified in two ways, one by types and by
the number of formal predications.
The classifications by types are:
1) Declarative sentences (Statement)
In a declarative sentence the subject and predicate have
normal word order. The sentence ends with a period (called
full stop in British English) in writing and a drop in pitch in
speech.
Example: The child ate his dinner.
2) Interrogative Sentences (Questions)
In an interrogative sentence the subject and auxiliary
are often reserved. The sentence ends with a question mark (or,
interrogation point) in writing.
Example: Did the child eat his dinner?
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3) Imperative sentences (Requests, Commands)
In an imperative sentence only the predicate is
expressed. The simple form of the verb is used, regardless of
person or tense. The imperative sentence ends with a period in
writing.
Example: Eat your dinner.
4) Exclamatory sentences (Exclamations)
The exclamatory phrase is followed by the subject and the
balance of the predicate. In writing the exclamatory sentence
ends with an exclamation mark (or, exclamation point).
Sometimes a period is used to lessen the force of the
exclamation.
Example: What a good dinner that was!
The classification of sentences by number of full predications
This classification is based on the number and kind of
clauses within a sentence.
1)
Simple sentence
Such sentences have only one full predication in the form of
an independent clause.
Example: The man stole the jewelry.
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2)
Compound sentences
Such sentences have two or more full predication in the
form of independent clauses.
Example: The man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his
home.
3)
Complex sentences
Such sentences also have two or more full predications. One
of these is an independent clause or main clause that is
similar to the form of the simple sentence, and one or more
of these are independent clauses (or,subordinate clauses).
Example: the man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home.
4)
Compound-Complex sentences
Compound-Complex sentences contain two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example: the man stole the jewelry and he hid it in his
home until he could safely get out of town.
C.
Speech Act
In speech act theory language is seen a form of acting. The study of
speech act concerns with two linguistics sides, namely form and function
(Renkema, 1993: 21). When somebody speaks, he will produce utterances
as linguistics form, in other hand his utterance has function to do an act.
For example: “I will go to campus at 8. am”. From this utterance, the
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speaker has made an action of “promise” via language to go to campus at 8
a.m.
According to Searle in Wardhaugh (1986: 277) we can perform at
least three different kinds of speech acts when we speak. There are
utterance acts, propositional acts, and illocutionary acts. Utterance acts
were called locutionary acts by Austin who also used the term
illocutionary acts and a further the term perlocutionary acts. Utterance acts
refer to the fact that we must use words and sentences if we say something.
Propositional acts are those matters having to do with referring and
predicting: we use language to refer to matters in the world and to make
prediction about such matters. Illocutionary acts have to do with the
speaker’s intention such as stating, questioning, promising, and
commanding. Then perlocutionary acts, the effect of utterances on hearer’s
responses.
Types of Speech Acts
Searle (1976) in an article “A Classification of Illocutionary Acts”
uses the three factors-illocutionary force, direction of fit, and expressed
psychological state-as the basis for classifying all speech acts. He
identifies six classes:
1.
Directives.
A directive speech act is an attempt by speaker to get
hearer to do something. Example of directives are ordering,
commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, entreating, daring,
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suggesting, inviting, questioning, insisting and permitting.
Note that the action must be future and voluntary, because it is
impossible to ask someone to perform an action in the past or
to do something which is not a matter of human will. e.g. ;
 Give me your hand, please!
 Could you lend me a book, please!
The expressed psychological state is that speaker wants hearer
to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word, for
speaker (S) is attempting to get the world resemble his or her
words.
2.
Commisives
In a commisives speech act, speaker commits himself or
herself to the performance of an action. Examples of
commisives
are
promising,
pledging,
threatening,
guaranteeing, agreeing, consenting and refusing. Again, the
promised action must be future and voluntary. The examples
are;
 I’ll accompany you going to the market tomorrow
 If you disobey the rule, I will give you a punishment.
The expressed psychological state is that speaker intends
to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word.
3.
Representatives (also known as “Assertives”)
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In this type of speech act, speaker represents a state of
affairs. Examples of representatives are affirming, declaring,
describing, claiming, stating, explaining, classifying, insisting,
emphasizing, and predicting. A representative commits speaker
to the truth of the preposition. The expressed psychological
state is one of belief. The direction of fit is word-to-world. The
examples are:
• Dad
: “He is my son”
• I tell you that Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia
4.
Expressives
In an expressive speech act, speaker expresses a
psychological state about the situation or state of affairs
denoted by the preposition. Examples of expressives are
thanking, apologizing, consoling, congratulating, greeting,
deploring, and welcoming. The propositional content is
something which affects speaker or hearer. In using expressive,
the speaker makes words fit the world (feeling). e.g.
 I’m really sorry!
 Congratulation for your success!
 Thank you for being helped, Nick!
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5.
Verdictives
Speaker
expresses
something. Example of
a
value
judgment
rates
verdictives are assessing, ranking,
rating, estimating, grading, diagnosing,
measuring.
or
Verdictives
may
be
calculating, and
a
subcategory
of
representatives since the expressed psychological state of the
speaker is belief in the value judgments, and the direction of fit
is word-to-world.
 The wide of our campus is around 2 hectare.
6.
Declaratives
Declaratives are the prototypical speech acts. Here the
speaker brings about a change a world by uttering a
locutionary act. The example of declaratives are declaring war,
seconding a motion, adjourning a meeting, firing, nominating,
betting, baptizing, finding guilty or innocent, divorcing
arresting, and resigning. E.g.
 Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.
 Bush : Attack!, Irak.