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Chapter 15 4th Edition Social Psychology: The Individual in Society Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-1 Social Psychology and Culture • Social psychology examines the causes, types, and consequences of human interaction. • Cultural differences, such as individualism (in which the individual's goals are most important) versus collectivism (in which group goals are most important), can influence the results of social psychological research. • Researchers need to avoid ethnocentrism (viewing other cultures as inferior extensions of their own). Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-2 How We View Others • Impression formation requires an actor and a perceiver. • The views of the perceiver, as well as the appearance and behaviors of the actor, influence the impression of the actor that is formed by the perceiver. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-3 How We View Others • Stereotypes are negative or positive sets of beliefs about members of particular groups. • Stereotypes reduce the amount of information that must be processed. • Stereotypes are very resistant to change because we tend selectively to notice behaviors that confirm our stereotypes. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-4 How We View Others • Our treatment of other people is prompted by our stereotypes • Prompting often brings forth the very behaviors that we associate with our stereotypes of those people. • Some self-disclosure fosters a positive impression, but excessive self-disclosure early in a relationship may result in a negative first impression. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-5 How We View Others • The process of attribution involves deciding why certain events occurred and why certain people behaved as they did. • With internal attributions, behavior is seen as being caused by factors that reside within a person. • With external attributions, the causes of behavior are viewed as residing outside an individual. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-6 How We View Others • We are more confident in our attributions when behaviors are consistent and have also been witnessed by others. • The fundamental attribution error occurs when internal factors are emphasized to the exclusion of external or situational factors. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-7 How We View Others • Perceivers' attributions may be biased toward internal attributions. • Actors are biased toward external attributions, especially when failure is involved. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-8 How We View Others • Attitudes are evaluative judgments (negative, positive, or neutral) that are formed about people, places, and things. • Affect, cognition, and behavior are the three components of an attitude. • Discrimination consists of behaviors directed at members of a particular group that affect them adversely. • Attitudes can serve ego-defensive, adjustment, and knowledge functions. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-9 How We View Others • Attitudes can be measured by Likert scales and evaluation of observed behaviors. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-10 Interpersonal Relationships • Attraction is the extent to which we like or dislike other people. • Attraction is determined by proximity, affect and emotions, reinforcement and similarity. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-11 Interpersonal Relationships • Friendship is a form of interpersonal attraction that involves a set of unwritten rules. • Passionate love is characterized by strong emotional reactions, sexual desire, and fantasies. • Companionate love is characterized by a longterm relationship and commitment. • Several other types of love have been proposed. • Sex roles can influence the love relationship. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-12 Interpersonal Relationships • Interdependence theory takes into account the costs and rewards in a relationship. • Each person develops a comparison level (CL), or expected outcome, for the relationship. • Dissatisfaction occurs when the outcomes of the relationship fall below the CL • People leave a relationship when the outcomes fall below their CLs for other relationships. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-13 Interpersonal Relationships • Prosocial behavior benefits society or helps others. • Altruism occurs when a person helps others with no thought of reward. • Because it is difficult to prove that no reward is present when a person behaves altruistically, the genuineness of this behavior has been questioned. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-14 Interpersonal Relationships • The bystander effect refers to the fact that people are less likely to provide assistance in an emergency when others are present than when they are alone. • The bystander effect is attributable to potential embarrassment, fear of failure, and diffusion of responsibility. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-15 Interpersonal Relationships • Aggression is any behavior that is performed with the intent of doing harm. • Hostile aggression occurs when the goal is specifically to harm another individual. • Instrumental aggression occurs when someone hurts another person in the pursuit of another goal-for example, during a robbery. • Biological views stress the inherited nature of aggressive behaviors. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-16 Interpersonal Relationships • The frustration-aggression hypothesis predicts that frustration, or being blocked from attaining a goal, results in aggression. • In addition to frustration, the presence of anger and certain cues may be necessary for aggression to occur. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-17 Interpersonal Relationships • Physical and verbal attacks, as well as adverse environmental conditions, may also elicit aggressive behavior. • A high level of general arousal can facilitate aggressive responding. • Current statistics underestimate the prevalence of sexual aggression directed toward women. • Viewing of pornography is positively related to sexual aggression. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-18 Interpersonal Relationships • Many incidents of rape can be classified as date or acquaintance rape. • Date rape appears to result from misperceptions, especially on the part of men, about the acceptability of sexual relations in certain situations. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-19 Social Influences on Behavior • The use of social influence to cause other people to change their attitudes and behaviors defines persuasion. • The expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness of the source of a message are important determinants of persuasion. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-20 Social Influences on Behavior • The most persuasive messages are those that; – attract attention, – draw conclusions (If the audience is passively involved), – differ only moderately from the attitudes of the audience, – are the last message heard (if action is required immediately), – are presented on a one-to-one basis. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-21 Social Influences on Behavior • Naive audiences that are unaware of the intent of persuasive messages are more likely to be influenced by these messages. • If the audience has previously been exposed to a mild form of the persuasive message, persuasion will be more difficult. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-22 Social Influences on Behavior • Obedience is the initiating or changing of behavior in response to a direct command. • In cases in which obedience will result in harm to another person, obedience increases with proximity to the source of the commands but decreases with proximity to the victim. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-23 Social Influences on Behavior • If the source of the commands takes responsibility for any harm resulting from obedience to those commands, the likelihood of obedience is high. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-24 Social Influences on Behavior • Conformity results from indirect pressure on an individual to change his or her behaviors and thoughts. • The authority behind these pressures is less obvious than in cases of obedience. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-25 Social Influences on Behavior • Selecting the matching line seems simple! • However, one-third of Asch’s participants chose incorrectly to conform with the group. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-26 Social Influences on Behavior • Compliance refers to behavior that is initiated or changed as a result of a request. • The compliance technique known as reciprocity involves doing something for someone else to make that person feel obligated to do something in return. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-27 The Individual and The Social Group • Prejudice is judging others solely on the basis of their group membership. • Stereotypes about the members of certain groups are an integral part of prejudice. • Prejudice may be reduced through contact among members of different groups. • Such contact is most effective where status is equal and common goals are being pursued • Discrimination consists of behaviors directed at members of a particular group that affect them adversely. Copyright 2004 - Prentice Hall 15-28