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Andrew Collier Cameron University of St Andrews Are we alone in the Universe? The plurality of worlds • In some worlds there is no Sun and Moon, in others they are larger than in our world, and in others more numerous. In some parts there are more worlds, in others fewer (...); in some parts they are arising, in others failing. There are some worlds devoid of living creatures or plants or any moisture. – Democritus (ca. 460-370 B.C.), after Hyppolytus (3rd cent. A.D.) • There cannot be more worlds than one. – Aristotle [ De Caelo ] How do galaxies , stars and planets form and evolve? • The worlds come into being as follows: many bodies of all sorts and shapes move from the infinite into a great void; they come together there and produce a single whirl, in which, colliding with one another and revolving in all manner of ways, they begin to separate like to like. – Leucippus (480-420(?) B.C.), after Diogenes Laertios (3rd cent. A.D.) QuickTime™ and a Cinepak decompressor are needed to see this picture. Dusty discs around young stars • Roughly half of all new-born Sun-like stars are surrounded by solar system-sized dusty discs. • Could this mean that half of all Sun-like stars have planetary systems? QuickTime™ and a Cinepak decompressor are needed to see this picture. Proto-planetary discs in the Orion Nebula (NASA/STScI) Searching for extra-solar Jupiters • A planet and its parent star orbit round their common centre of gravity. • The star is much more massive than the planet, so the reflex orbital speed is small. • A massive planet in a close orbit gives its star a reflex velocity of a few tens of ms–1. • This gives a small but measurable Doppler shift. QuickTime™ and a Video decompressor are needed to see this picture. 51 Pegasi: The first wobbling star Discovered by Michel Mayor & Didier Queloz in mid-1995. Today’s state of play • 237 planets in 203 systems, Oct 1995 20-Aug-2007 from “Doppler wobble” searches. • 25 multiple systems • 24 transiting systems, 19 from transit searches • 4 microlensing planets (more distant!) Recipe for building Jupiters • Ingredients: – 10 Earth masses of ice-coated dust particles – Lots of gas (mostly hydrogen) • Method: – Allow dust & ice to coagulate – Allow solid core to sweep up gas – Leave to cool for 5 billion years • Common problems: – Tidal gaps starve planet of gas. – Gas accretion takes tens of millions of years, longer than lifetime of disc. – Migrating planets spiral into star. Numerical simulation by Pawel Artymowicz, Stockholm. Tip of the iceberg? • Left panel: Core accretion+migration simulation by Ida & Lin (2004), showing gas giants, ice giants, rocky planets. • Right panel: Radial-velocity discoveries so far. Iron abundance and planet formation Eccentric Orbits Unclear why. Planet-planet interactions Eccentricity pumping Small planets ejected Tidal circularisation Other planet-building recipes • If disk cools efficiently by infrared radiation, fragments can collapse spontaneously to form “instant planets”. • Several dozen planets form and interact. QuickTime™ and a GIF decompressor are needed to see this picture. Numerical simulation by Ken Rice, University of St Andrews. Other planet-building recipes • If disk cools efficiently by infrared radiation, fragments can collapse spontaneously to form “instant planets”. • Several dozen planets form and interact. • Smaller planets get ejected from system. • One “big fish” survives in an eccentric orbit. • Problems: – Hard to get multiple, smaller planets to survive in near circular orbits. Only one planetary object remains after N-body evolution for 21 Myr. • Mp = 7.4 Jupiter masses • a = 1.66 au • e = 0.63 Lessons from Doppler Wobbles • > 5% of Sun-like stars host a Jupiter • Metallicity matters • Orbits differ from Solar System – wide range of orbit radii ( P > 2d ) – wide range of eccentricities • New processes – Migration -- spiral-in – eccentricity pumping – ejection • What sort of planets are the hot Jupiters ? Transit Lightcurves rJup 0.1 RSun Depth : 2 2 r f R p 1% f rJup RSun Duration : M 2 / 3 P 1/ 3 t 3h M Sun 4d Probability : R M 1/ 3 P 2 / 3 Pt 10% R M Sun Sun 4d SuperWASP hardware • Pollacco et al 2006, PASP 118, 1407 • Lenses – Canon 200mm f/1.8 – Aperture 11.1 cm • CCD Detector – 2048 x 2048 thinned e2v (Andor, Belfast) – 13.5x13.5 micron pixels • Field of View – 7.8 x 7.8 degrees – 13.7 arcsec/pixel • Mount – OMI/Torus robotic mount • Operating Temperature – –50 ºC – 3-stage Peltier Cooling WASP data reduction pipeline Flatfield Bias Pre-processed Raw Dark Current Exposure Map 16h43+31d26 field 2004 May-Aug 1 Flux-RMS RMS scatter (mag) 0.1 Series1 0.01 12 0.001 9 10 11 12 WASP V magnitude 13 14 Field recognition, astrometry, aperture photometry, calibration/detrending Current Observing fields Data processed so far (stellar density plot) Substellar mass-radius relation Mass-radius relation for hot Jupiters • WASP-1b,-2b: Cameron et al 2007, MNRAS (+ XO-2b, HAT-P-2b, HAT-P-3b, TrES-3, TrES-4, CoRoT-EXO1b, Gl 436b since 2007 May 1) Why we need many more … • How does planet radius scale with – – – – – – – Planet mass? (Fortney et al 2007) Planet age? (Many!) Metallicity/opacity? (Burrows et al 2007, Guillot et al 2006) Existence/size of core? (Guillot et al 2006) Proximity to host star? (Fortney et al 2007) Migration history? ? QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Core mass and formation mechanism • Recent example: – – – – HD 149026b Transiting hot Saturn High density => massive core Sato et al, ApJ, in press • Test formation models: – Core accretion+migration – Gravitational instability GJ 436 b • Gillon et al 2007 May 17, astroph/0705.2219 • Neptune-mass planet • Neptune-like radius • Radius depends strongly on composition (cf. Fortney et al 2007, astro-ph/0612671) • Ice-giant structure. WASP-1b WASP-2b Exoplanet “Discovery Space” ~100 Doppler wobble planets Hot Planets Cool Planets Microlensing by a star Background Lensing star Observer • Light from background stars is gravitationally bent around a foreground star. • Light is amplified near the “Einstein Ring”. • Misaligned objects produce 2 images, one inside and one outside the Einstein Ring Now if I had a REALLY big telescope... • ...this is what a Sunlike star would do to the view of dust clouds in a nearby galaxy, 150,000 ly away. • The Einstein ring of the star is about the size of Jupiter’s orbit round the Sun. QuickTime™ and a Video decompressor are needed to see this picture. First definitive planetary lens event! OGLE-2003-BLG-235/MOA-2003-BLG-53 • OGLE/PLANET/MOA collaboration – 45 microlensing events monitored intensively over the last 5 years. – No convincing Jupiter-like secondary peaks found… until last week! – Conclusion: less than 30% of lensing stars have Jupiters. • First definitive planet detection announced in NASA press release by D. Bennett’s team, 2004 April 15. Courtesy Dave Bennett and OGLE/PLANET/MOA team members Planetary Parameters • Best-fitting model: • Planet mass: 1.5 Jupiter masses • Star mass: 0.36 solar masses • Planet-star distance: 3 times Earth-Sun distance • Distance from Earth: 16000 light-years! Space-based transit detection HST MOST QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. CoRoT KEPLER Line photons blocked high in atmosphere Continuum photons blocked by clouds Opaque silicate cloud deck Extended atmosphere With gaseous Na, K, H2O, CH4, ... What’s in their atmospheres? 1.5% Brown (2001) 1.6% Na I wavelength (microns) Na I absorption in HD 209458b • Charbonneau et al (2002: ApJ 568, 377) – Hubble Space telescope / STIS – Weak detection of Na! – f/f ~ 2x10–4 The amazing evaporating planet • Vidal-Madjar et al (2003) Nature 422, 123 Star occults planet 0.2 % Spitzer/IRAC 4.5, 8.0 micron Direct detection of infrared light from planet TrES-1: Charbonneau et al. 2005 HD 209458: Deming et al. 2005 -> effective temperature Water in HD 189733b • Planet silhouette size measured in SPITZER/IRAC 3.6, 5.8, 8.0 mm bands during primary transit. • Wavelength dependence matches water transmission spectrum, mixing ratio ~ 5x10–4 . Tinetti et al 2007, Nature 448, 163 QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The continuously habitable zone QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. The Darwin Mission: 2018? QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Aim: to discover Earth-like planets orbiting nearby stars and seek atmospheric biosignatures. • Four interlinked collector mirrors flying ~100m apart. • Light waves from collectors interfere to cancel out glare of central star. You’d look pretty simple from 30 light-years away too • Nulling interferometry with infrared light from Darwin’s four collectors eliminates light from star. • Simulated image of our own solar system seen from 30 light-years away detects all inner planets except Mercury: Earth (Sun) Venus Mars Mid-IR spectra of terrestrial planets QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. History of the Earth’s atmosphere Methane, Ammonia Nitrogen Water Carbon Dioxide Oxygen Time before present (billions of years) Summary • Transiting hot Jupiters probe: – Interior structure – Formation history – Atmospheric composition – Albedo and energy budget • Wide but shallow surveys (WASP, HAT, TrES, XO) yielding several planets/year bright enough for transit spectroscopy, Spitzer /JWST secondary-eclipse studies. • Space-based transit studies capable of detecting hot (CoRoT) and warm (KEPLER) super-Earths and determing bulk composition. • Efficient spectroscopic confirmation essential to eliminate impostors and determine planet masses. • Long-term, high-precision transit timings may reveal lower-mass planets. • DARWIN/TPF: nulling interferometry will permit 10-micron spectroscopy of terrestrial planet atmospheres. Postcards from Titan Image Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona Transiting extrasolar giant planets • 19 examples known. • Stellar mass and period yield orbital separation a. • Transit shape yields – impact parameter – stellar radius • Transit depth yields ratio of radii • Hence get direct measure of planetary density.