Download Warm Autoantibodies and Transfusion

EDUCATIONAL COMMENTARY – WARM AUTOANTIBODIES AND TRANSFUSION
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Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this exercise, the participant should be able to:
•
explain the etiology and pathogenesis of warm autoantibodies.
•
describe the complications of pretransfusion testing.
•
communicate transfusion recommendations to clinicians.
Warm autoantibodies are antibodies that react with intrinsic antigens present on autologous red blood cells
(RBCs) at body temperature. However, the relationship of an autoantibody and its hemolytic potential is not well
defined, and some may never have a pathologic effect in the patient. Therefore, the presentation of patients
with warm autoantibodies is highly variable and may range from patients who are asymptomatic without RBC
destruction to severe and life-threatening anemia. Patients who are symptomatic seek treatment for fatigue,
dyspnea, and or cardiac tachycardia or palpitations. The degree of anemia a patient experiences is dependent
on the ability of the patient’s marrow to compensate for the increased RBC destruction.
Etiology and Pathophysiology of Warm Autoantibodies
Warm autoantibodies develop when there is an immunoregulation breakdown, which may be determined by
genetic factors. As part of the immunoregulation breakdown, the loss of T-cell regulation combined with
overactive B cells leads to the production and emergence of autoantibodies. Several known triggers initiate this
process, including viral infections, inflammatory processes, malignancies, and medications. Epstein-Barr virus
(EBV) and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections are commonly associated with cold reacting autoantibody
formation. Infections increase the macrophage’s ability to phagocytose antibody-coated RBCs to initiate this
process. Chronic inflammatory processes such as systemic lupus erythematosus, biliary cirrhosis, and
ulcerative colitis are autoimmune processes that are commonly associated with the formation of warm
autoantibodies. Other lymphoproliferative disorders such as Hodgkin lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia,
hairy cell leukemia, and angioimmunoblastic lymphoma are lymphoproliferative processes associated with the
production of autoantibodies. Medications through several mechanisms also serve as triggers that enhance
immunoregulation breakdown for the production of warm autoantibodies.
The Role of Blood Transfusion
Blood transfusion is a trigger for alloantibody formation but is also capable of stimulating the formation of
autoantibodies. This phenomenon was first recognized 60 years ago when RBC autoimmunization was first
described in a patient who developed anti-D antibody as well as a severe autoimmune hemolytic anemia due to
formation of a warm autoantibody. Autoantibodies have been noted after transfusion and can present in
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EDUCATIONAL COMMENTARY – WARM AUTOANTIBODIES AND TRANSFUSION (cont.)
patients weeks to months later as a delayed transfusion reaction. Two separate studies have looked at the
formation of autoantibodies in transfused patients and have found that autoantibody production due to
allogeneic transfusion is higher than previously reported and that autoimmunization should be recognized as a
complication of allogeneic transfusion.
The pathophysiology of warm autoantibodies results in the destruction of RBCs by intravascular, extravascular,
or cell-mediated processes. The IgG binds and coats the RBC membrane with or without the presence of
complement. The coated RBCs then travel to the organs of the reticuloendothelial system where they are
sequestered within the microvasculature allowing for the coated RBC to interact closely with macrophages. The
macrophages have membrane receptors for the Fc portion of the IgG antibodies, and the cell may be completely
or partially phagocytized. If the RBC is partially phagocytized, the cell membrane is altered and is released
back into circulation as a smaller RBC known as a microspherocyte, which has a loss of cellular elasticity,
increased osmotic fragility, and a shortened life span (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Pathophysiology of warm autoantibodies. WAIHA indicates warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia.
WAIHA Pathophysiology
C’
Intravascular
hemolysis
C’
C’
Microspheroctye in
circulation
Phagocytosis by
macrophage
Remain
sequestered
Spleen
The quantity and subclass of IgG influences the development and degree of hemolysis as macrophages have
receptors specifically for IgG1 and IgG3 subclasses. Removal of RBCs is further accelerated when complement
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EDUCATIONAL COMMENTARY – WARM AUTOANTIBODIES AND TRANSFUSION (cont.)
is also bound to the RBC membrane because the macrophages also have receptors for the complement
component, C3b. The IgG and complement receptors act together to enhance the binding of the coated RBC.
Removal of these cells occurs primarily within the spleen, although if large amounts of IgG are present on the
RBC membrane then the liver can assist with the clearance of these coated RBCs.
Pretransfusion Testing
Warm autoantibodies are typically panreactive in the antibody screens and panels as well as in the autocontrol
(patient plasma incubated with autologous RBC). Panreactivity precludes identification of underlying
alloantibodies. Because this requires further investigation, a polyspecific direct antiglobulin test (DAT) is
performed. If the DAT positive, the monospecific IgG and C3d DAT are performed. For warm autoantibodies,
the IgG monospecific DAT is positive with or without the presence of C3d. An elution procedure is performed on
all samples with a positive IgG DAT to remove IgG antibody coating the RBCs. Elution methods include heat,
the Lui freeze-thaw method, acid, or Digitonin acid elution, which dissociate the antibody from the RBC and
concentrate it in the remaining suspension (see Figure 2). The eluted antibody suspension is then reacted
against a panel of RBCs. If the eluate demonstrates specificity to an antigen, this indicates the presence of an
alloantibody that formed as a result of exposure to foreign RBC antigens during transfusion or pregnancy.
When the eluate is panreactive, then an autoantibody is the most likely explanation, particularly if the patient has
no exposure history.
Figure 2. Elution techniques. Ab indicates antibody.
Elutions
Ab dissociates
from RBC
Elution
methods:
1. Heat
2. Lui-freeze
thaw
3. Acid
elution
4. Digitonin
acid
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EDUCATIONAL COMMENTARY – WARM AUTOANTIBODIES AND TRANSFUSION (cont.)
Patient samples that are panreactive in the antibody panel and the eluate must have an adsorption procedure
performed to rule out the presence of an alloantibody inasmuch as increased reactivity is not always
demonstrated with underlying alloantibodies. An autoadsorption may be performed in patients who have not
been transfused within the previous three months. The patient’s autologous cells are first pretreated with
enzymes or heat to disrupt the bonds between the autoantibodies and RBC membrane so binding sites are
exposed. The treated cells are then incubated with the patient’s plasma to adsorb free floating autoantibody. In
patients with high titers of autoantibodies, this may require sequential autoadsorptions with a new aliquot of
treated autologous cells until the adsorbed plasma is no longer reactive with autologous cells. After this is
accomplished, the adsorbed plasma is reacted against a panel of RBCs to detect the presence of an underlying
alloantibody.
Autoadsorptions cannot be performed in patients who have been transfused within three months because donor
cells are still potentially in circulation. The options are to perform a reticulocyte harvest by gradient
centrifugation to isolate autologous RBCs for autoadsorption or perform an allogeneic adsorption. The
allogeneic adsorption requires using at least three different donor cells with known phenotypes to differentially
perform the adsorption procedure. The alloadsorption can be performed up to three times, but adsorbing >3
times may potentially dilute the plasma and prevent detection of the underlying alloantibody. Because the
phenotype of the adsorbing cells is known, adsorbing the plasma with Kidd a (JKa) antigen-negative cells that
are then reactive with a panel cell that is positive for Jka antigen is interpreted as an underlying anti-Jka
alloantibody. The most important consideration when transfusing a patient with warm autoantibodies is to rule
out any underlying alloantibodies capable of causing a hemolytic transfusion reaction masked by broadly
reactive autoantibodies. Therefore, prior to transfusing a patient with a panreactive autoantibody, an adsorption
technique should be performed to rule out an underlying alloantibody.
If an underlying alloantibody is detected, then antigen-negative blood is provided. If the autoantibody
demonstrates specificity to one of the Rh, Kell, or Kidd antigen systems and the patient has active hemolysis,
then donor blood lacking this antigen is also recommended. In the absence of hemolysis, providing antigennegative blood is debatable. Also prior to providing antigen-negative blood, the zygosity of the patient must be
considered. For example, if the autoantibody demonstrates anti-E specificity but the patient is negative for the
high-incidence e antigen, providing this patient with e antigen-positive blood places the patient at risk for
developing an alloanti-e antibody, thereby decreasing the rate of compatibility to <1% with the donor population.
Providing phenotypically matched blood is another option and should be considered in those patients who are
chronically transfused, such as patients with hemoglobinopathies, to decrease the risk of alloimmunization. In
patients who are rarely transfused, providing phenotypically matched blood is not required. An autocontrol
should be performed with each crossmatch to select allogenic units that are equal or less reactive than the
autocontrol. This is commonly referred to as selecting units that are “least incompatible.”
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Transfusion
Direct communication should occur between the blood bank physician and the patient’s clinician. The blood
bank physician must gather the patient’s transfusion and pregnancy history to assess the risk of
alloimmunization and the need for transfusion. Conservative transfusion practices must be encouraged with the
clinician, and transfusion should be reserved for patients with life-threatening anemia, ongoing bleeding, or
underlying comorbidities that place the patients at risk, such as cardiovascular disease or cerebrovascular
ischemia. The clinician should be reassured that a thorough investigation for clinically significant underlying
alloantibodies has been performed but that the search for compatible blood is futile. The clinician and blood
bank physician should together decide to transfuse the patient with the least amount of blood to provide
adequate oxygenation after assessing the transfusion risk versus benefit to the patient.
The patient should be slowly transfused while the medical team is available. Vital signs should be monitored
closely for signs of hemolysis. In patients without in vivo hemolysis, transfusions are generally well tolerated
because transfused RBCs have the same rate of survival as autologous RBCs. Sequelae to transfusion include
suppression of erythropoiesis of autologous cells, possible rise in autoantibody titer, and increased risk of
hemolysis, as well as increased risk of alloimmunization. The risk of alloimmunization in patients with
autoantibodies is 12% to 40% per unit, compared to 2% to 10% in patients without autoantibodies, and the
incidence of autoantibodies coexisting with newly detected antibodies is up to 50%. Therefore, a thorough
investigation of underlying alloantibodies prior to each transfusion is required, and conservative transfusion
practices are strongly encouraged in these high-risk patients.
Summary
Warm autoantibodies are antibodies that react with intrinsic antigens on autologous RBCs at body temperature.
Therefore, they are considered clinically significant, but the relationship between detection and pathologic effect
is not well defined. The presence of these autoantibodies complicates pretransfusion and compatibility testing
by panreactivity that precludes detection of underlying alloantibodies by routine testing. Performing a thorough
laboratory investigation to detect the presence of underlying alloantibodies is vital to prevent hemolytic
transfusion reactions during or after transfusion of allogenic blood. The decision to transfuse these high-risk
patients should be made after establishing communication with the patient’s clinician to weigh the risk versus
benefit of transfusion, and should only occur in patients with life-threatening anemia or to improve oxygencarrying capacity in patients with underlying cardiovascular or cerebrovascular comorbidities. Patients should
be slowly transfused while the medical team is available, and vital signs should be carefully monitored for signs
and symptoms of a hemolytic transfusion reaction. Transfusion with allogenic blood suppresses the patient’s
erythropoiesis of autologous RBCs and increases the risk of alloimmunization, thereby increasing the complexity
of serologic testing. In patients without signs and symptoms of hemolytic anemia, transfused allogeneic RBCs
have life expectancy similar to that of autologous RBCs.
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Suggested Reading
Duffy TP. Autoimmune hemolytic anemia and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. In: Simon TL, Snyder EL,
Stowell CP, et al. eds. Rossi’s Principles of Transfusion Medicine. 4th edition. Bethesda, MD: AABB Press;
2009:321-343.
Leger RM. The positive direct antiglobulin test and immune mediated hemolysis. In: Roback J, Combs MR,
Grossman B, eds. Technical Manual. 16th ed. Bethesda MD: American Association of Blood Banks;
2008:489-521.
Ness PM. How do I encourage clinicians to transfuse mismatched blood to patients with autoimmune hemolytic
anemia in urgent situations. Transfusion. 2006;46:1859-1862.
© ASCP 2010
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