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p1 Introduction to Grammar 1 2 3 4 Basic elements of English a Parts of speech b Phrases and clauses c Sentence Structure Nouns Pronouns Tenses 5 6 7 Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Conjunctions Gerunds Infinitives Modal verbs Conditional sentences Relative Clauses Reported Speech p2 1 The basic parts of English a Parts of speech Part Explanation Example Nouns names of people, things, places and qualities Peter, Mary, tables, Hong Kong, beauty Pronouns replace nouns and help us to avoid repetition I, me, you, he, him, she, they Verbs describe actions and states go, swim, study, sleep, feel Adjectives describe nouns beautiful, naughty Adverbs describe verbs quickly, slowly, carefully Prepositions describe the relationship in, on, at, to between verbs and nouns Conjunctions connect two or more actions together to form compound of complex sentences and, but, because Interjections Ah, O, Wow, Well, Hey words or phrases to express a strong feeling such as shock, pain or pleasure b Phrases and clauses A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a verb: eg. I like the monitor of that class. A clause is a sentence within a sentence which contains a subject and verb: eg. I like the boy who sits next to Ann. c Sentence Structure A sentence is a group of words which are joined together in correct grammatical order. A sentence needs a subject and a verb, it may be followed by an object or a complement. i Simple sentences Subject + Verb eg. He is swimming. My arm hurts. Subject + Verb + Object p3 eg. I have finished my homework ii iii Subject + Verb + Object 1 + Object 2 eg. Mary gave me her pencil. I told John the good news. Subject + Verb + Complement eg. Kevin is honest and hard-working. Compound sentences A compound sentence consists of more than one subject and verb. It is formed by joining two or more simple sentences together. All the clauses in the compound sentence can stand as a single sentence. eg. They fished all day but they didn’t catch a thing. I sang and danced. Complex sentences A complex sentence consists of more than one subject and one finite verb. It is a sentence formed by joining two simple sentences: one sentence functions as the main clause, and the other functions as the subordinate clause. Normally, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause has to follow that of the verb in the main clause: eg. While I was cooking in the kitchen, I heard a strange noise. p4 2 Nouns i Countable and uncountable nouns eg. table, chair, bread, water ii Common nouns iii Proper nouns eg. China, Hong Kong, Mr Wong, Buddhist Wai Yan Memorial College iv Abstract nouns - uncountable and therefore have no plural form eg. beauty, peace, equality, justice v Collective nouns - a word for a group of people, animals or objects which is considered as a single unit eg. audience, class, crowd, police, flock, government, team, public Articles i Definite – the/the refers to a specific noun which can be either countable or uncountable a refers to someone or something which is known b specifying a noun followed by a clause or phrase c ii eg. The man sitting near the door is the manager of this restaurant. The little girl over there lives in that house. refers to a known environment eg. She picked up the phone. Indefinite – a/an refer to people and things in general. a used with singular countable nouns when the thing or person referred to is not mentioned earlier or the reader does not know what or who is being referred to b c when it means the numeral one eg. I need a new pen. when it means every or per eg. These eggs cost $10 a dozen d after such, what + singular countable noun eg. She is such a hard working student. e in the phrases a few / a little / a lot of eg. I need a few students in this project. p5 There are few students in the library. f g used with proper names, meaning a certain eg. I talked to a Mr Wong yesterday and he said that he knew you. After so / too + adjective + singular noun eg. He is too lazy a person to do that. p6 3 Pronouns Types: Subject Object Adjective Possessive Reflexive I me my mine myself You you your yours yourself / yourselves He him his his himself She her her hers herself It it its its itself We us our ours ourselves They them their theirs themselves Usage eg. I am a student. Mary gave this book to me. This is my book. This book is mine. I bought this book myself. p7 4 Tenses There are twelve main tenses in English to describe past, present and future actions. Past Simple I went to school. He went to school. Present Future I go to school (everyday). He / She goes to school. I shall/will go to school. He will go to school. Continuous/ I was going to school. I am going to school. progressive He/She was going to school. He/She is going to school. You were going to school. You are going to school. I shall/will be going to school soon. He/She will be going to school soon. Perfect I shall have gone to school I had gone to school. I have gone to school. He/She had gone to school. He/ She has gone to school. by 8:00am. He will have gone to school when you come back. Perfect I had been going to school. continuous He/She had been going to school. I have been going to school(for ten years). He / She has been going to school( since 1990). I shall have been going to school for ten years by September. He will have been going to school for fifteen years by next month. p8 Uses Present Simple – i) ii) iii) iv) Present continuous – i) ii) iii) iv) Present perfect – habitual actions facts/truths instructions talking about the future actions happening now indicating change talking about temporary situations talking about the future i) links the past with the present actions happening now ii) describes a finished action that has present result indicating change Present perfect continuous – i) ii) iii) to talk about the duration of an action using a time expression the time period indicated by the time expression is not finished at the time of speaking to talk about an action that started in the past and is still continuing or has just stopped at the time of speaking Past Simple – i) ii) Past continuous – i) ii) Past Perfect – i) ii) to talk about a finished action in the past ( with or without a time expression to talk about an action that happened right before another action in the past eg. When the bell rang, everyone got up. temporary action in progress in the past a simultaneous continuous action + when for the earlier of two past actions in reported speech Past Perfect Continuous – describing an action in progress in the past before another action p9 Simple Future – i) ii) iii) iv) Future Continuous – i) ii) making decisions / threats / promises expressing opinions making offers, requests, suggestions stating intentions / plans / predictions describing future events, plans or intentions expressing expectations Future Perfect – i) talking about actions that we know will be completed by a certain time in the future ii) talking about actions that we think will be completed by a certain time in the future Future Perfect Continuous – talking about the duration of a continuous action or event up to a future point of time p10 5 Adjectives i An adjective is a word that describes a noun, it gives us more information about the noun. ii Adjectives are placed before the noun they describe. When using more than one adjective to describe a noun, place the adjectives in the following order: Number + quality / opinion + size + age + shape + colour + origin + composition + purpose + noun iii Comparative and superlative adjectives -er / more _____ than the -est / the most _____ iv as…….as We use as…as to say that two people, things, etc are the same in some way. eg. Mary is as tall as John. The test was as difficult as I’d expected. 6 Adverbs - an adverb is a word used to give more information about an action. Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to the end of adjectives. i Adverbs of manner - describe how something happens eg. She sings beautifully. He works slowly. ii Adverbs of place - describe where something happens eg. He lives here. We saw Johnny in the park. ii Adverbs of time - describe when something happens eg. He bought a camera yesterday. We played football last weekend. p11 7 Prepositions A preposition is a word or group of words that we place before a noun, noun phrase or pronoun. The preposition expresses a relationship between the word that precedes it to noun, noun phrase or pronoun that follows it. Preposition of place: in, on at Prepositions of place and movement: in, into, out of, on, onto, off, inside, outside, above, below over, under, underneath, on top of, in front of, behind, opposite, between, near, next to, by, beside, along, across, Prepositions of time: through, over, up, down, past, round, from, towards in, on, at, during, for, while, by, Prepositions of means of transport: until, from, to/ until, before, after, since, ago, before by, on, in 8 Conjunctions Conjunctions are joining words. We use them to join words, phrases or sentences. i Coordinating conjunctions and, or, but ii Correlative conjunctions both….and, either….or, neither…. nor, not only….but also, whether….or iii Subordinating Conjunctions after, although, as, as soon as, because, before, even though, how, if, since, so, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while, why p12 9 Gerunds - - - - A gerund is a verbal noun. It is like a verb but is used as a noun. It is the –ing form of the verb. It can be the subject or object of a sentence. eg. Eating too much makes you fat. I don’t like reading. Gerunds can also have their own objects. eg. Eating fried food makes you fat. I don’t like reading history book. -ing is used instead of the infinitive after prepositions. eg. You should undo your shoelaces before taking off your shoes. I look forward to meeting you. You can use gerunds to describe habitual events. A gerund can be usually found after one of the verbs below: admit adore avoid consider delay deny dislike - dread fancy feel like finish give up go imagine involve keep on mention mind miss postpone practice put off recall resist risk spend time / money suggest understand A passive form ( being + a past participle) can also be used. eg. I dislike being stared at. We just missed being run over by a bus. p13 10 - - Infinitives An infinitive is a non-finite verb that can be used as a noun, adjective or adverb, or as part of a noun, adjectival or adverbial phrase. An infinitive can exist in active or passive voice forms. eg. active voice: to do to have done to be doing passive voice: to be done to have been done to have been doing A few of the more common verbs normally followed by an infinitive include: afford decide intend pretend wish agree determine learn promise appear arrange ask - expect fail help manage mean offer refuse seem threaten attempt hope prepare want A few of the more common verbs normally followed by an object + an infinitive include: eg. The doctor advised me to take a complete rest. advise help teach allow invite tempt ask know tell encourage order warn p14 11 Modal verbs We use modals to talk about: ability, capability, possibility, probability, permission, necessity, obligation, promises, threats, warnings, advice, criticism, intentions, requests and preferences. They are : can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should and ought to, and need. - Ability: can, could, be able to - Permission: can, could, may, might, be allowed to - Obligation and necessity: must, have to, have got to mustn’t, don’t have to, don’t need to, haven’t got to, needn’t - Obligation and advice: - Possibility: should, ought to, had better, be supposed to, shall may, might, could, can - Probability: Requests: should, ought to can, could, may, will, would p15 12 Conditional sentences Conditional sentences consist of a conditional ( if ) clause and a main clause. eg. If I meet Paul, I will kill him. if clause main clause Type 1: To express facts that do not change. eg. If you heat water, it boils. simple present simple present Type 2: To express a possible future event. eg. If you don’t get up soon, you will be late for school. simple present simple future Type 3: To express an unlikely or unreal event or situation. eg. If I met Mr Chan, I would kill him. simple past would + bare infinitive eg. If I were to meet Mr Chan, I would kill him. were + to + bare infinitive would + bare infinitive Type 4: To express impossible actions and situations eg. If I had met Mr Chan I would have killed him. past perfect would + have + past participle p16 13 Relative Clause Defining and non-defining relative clauses a. A defining clause identifies somebody or something: eg. The man who followed me was middle-aged. I want to teach you a method which will help you improve your English. b. A non-defining clause gives us more information about the person or thing being described: eg. 1 Michael, who is supposed to be the best singer in Hong Kong, can hardly sing a note. 2 My cousin, who’s a committed Christian, is very hard-working and honest. p17 14 Reported Speech Speech can be written directly by using quotation marks ( “……“) or indirectly. Forming indirect speech .we can use the word that when reporting statements, (may be left out ) .we can use: if, whether, what , where, how etc. when reporting questions .Pronouns change: eg. ‘ This isn’t our car.’ She said that it wasn’t their car. .Verb tenses usually change: eg. ‘ I like apples.’ He said that he liked apples. ‘Tommy ate my apple.’ She said Tommy had eaten her apple. .Sometimes the tense can stay the same: - when the thing reported is a universal truth - when the thing reported is still true at the time of reporting it .Infinitives stay the same eg. ‘ I want to go home.’ The boy said that he wanted to go home. Summary of change of tenses: - for references only – some flexibility is possible in changing some of the tenses and some of the adverbs of time and place. Direct speech Indirect speech Present simple I like milk. Past simple He said he liked milk. Present continuous Are you listening? Past continuous She asked if I was listening. Past simple I didn’t do it. Past perfect He said he hadn’t done it. Present perfect Past perfect You’ve eaten my moon cake. He said I’d eaten his moon cake. Past continuous I was sleeping. Past continuous or past perfect continuous He said he was sleeping. He said that he had been sleeping. Past perfect I hadn’t realized. Past perfect He said he hadn’t realised shall/ will I’ll kill them. should/ would He said he would kill them. p18 can/ may could / might I can’t hear you I may come. She said she couldn’t hear me. He said he might come. Direct speech Reported speech this that these those now then, at that time here there come gone today that day yesterday the day before, the pervious day tomorrow the next day, the following day last week/month/year the week/ month/ year before the previous week/ month/ year next week/ month/year the week/ month/ year after