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time and tense
Time is a universal, non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present and
future; by tense we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our
concept of time. Aspect concerns the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or
regarded (for example a completed action or an event in progress), while mood relates the
verbal action to such conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility (Quirk and
Greenbaum 1985:40). Tense is a frequent category in the languages of the world but is far
from universal, Chinese being an example of a language which lacks tense entirely (Trask
1999:276).
In the real world a state-of-affairs exists in space and time. Objective time as one of
the two forms of existence of matter is characterised by the following attributes: its infinitive
extension, unidimensionality (linearity) and irreversibility of its course, and divisibility into
an infinite number of segments of any size (which demonstrates the dialectical contradiction
of continuity and discontinuity).
The divisibility of time allows establishing time systems:
− Physical/Chronometric time (second<minute<hour)
− Calendar (day<week<month<year, BC, AD)
− Historical time (ancient times, the Middle Ages, the new age, the
pre-Columbian age/time)
− Geological time (recent, Pleistocene, Pliocene, Miocene)
These time systems provide reference points (indices) the states-of-affairs can be
related to.
For practical purposes time can be graphically illustrated as a limitless straight line on
which the states-of-affairs occupy their definite positions:
Figure 1
The division of time
t1 = now (moment of speaking)
objective time/time line
past
(time)
present
(time)
future
(time)
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For the speaker the moment of speaking is the primary index of orientation (t1) in time.
It subdivides the time experienced into three segments. The moment of speaking itself and a
variable timespan including it are experienced as present (in an event of direct perception).
The segment preceding the moment of speaking is experienced as past (in an act of
recollection), the segment following the moment of speaking as future (in an act of
anticipation). (Giering et al. 1984:145)
This is an interpretation of past, present and future on a referential level. But in
relating this view of time to language and, more precisely, to the meaning of verbs, it is
useful to reformulate the threefold distinction such that ‘present’ is defined in an inclusive
rather than in an exclusive way: something is defined as ‘present’ if it has existence at the
present moment, allowing for the possibility that its existence may also stretch into the past
and into the future. Hence Paris stands on the River Seine may be correctly said to describe a
‘present’ state of affairs, even though this state of affairs has also obtained for numerous
centuries in the past, and may well exist for an indefinite period in the future (Quirk et al.
1991:175-6):
Figure 2
Present Tense as general time (Quirk et al. 1991:176)
now
time
past time
future time
(preceding now)
(following now)
present time
(including now)
Paris stands on the River Seine.
What anyone can find most typically is the choice of the speech situation as the
reference point, i. e. the present moment (or time), the present spot (for space) and the speaker
and hearer (for person). As far as tense is concerned, then, the reference point is typically the
present moment and tense locate situations either at the same time as the present moment (or
perhaps including the present moment) or prior to the present moment or subsequent to the
present moment, with further potential categories of degrees of remoteness from the present
moment are distinguished grammatically. A system which relates entities to a reference point
is termed a deictic1 system and we can therefore say that tense is deictic (Comrie 1993:14).
Dividing time into past, present and future is not the only possible process. Moreover,
even in English we can find only two tense forms: write(s), wrote. So tense admits of
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deictic // adj. ‘specifying identity or spatial or temporal location from the perspective of one or more of the participants in an act
of speech or writing, in the context of discourse’; deixis noun
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categorisation in many different ways. One might grant that the directionality of time is given
nature but this may or may not be relevant to the analysis of tense in particular languages.
Various categorisations are possible. The ‘theoretical zero point’ (the ‘now’ of utterance)
might be included with either ‘past’ or ‘future’ to yield, on the one hand, a dichotomy
between ‘future’ and ‘non-future’, or, on the other hand, a dichotomy between ‘past’ and
‘non-past’. A different dichotomy (based on the distinction of ‘now’ and ‘not-now’ without
reference to the directionality of time — examples just in English: now and then!) could be
‘present’ versus ‘non-present’. Other possible categorisations might depend upon the notion
of ‘proximity’ (with or without reference to directionality): e. g. a dichotomy of ‘proximate’
versus ‘non-proximate’ (with respect to time of utterance), a trichotomy of ‘now’ versus
‘proximate’ versus ‘remote’. And these distinctions might be combined in various ways and
not merely as suggested in traditional grammar books (Lyons 1992:305-6).
The typical deictic adverbs and pronouns referring to the spatial and temporal
situation and the participants of the situation are here, now, I and you, respectively. As now
means ‘the point of time we are talking at’, we can draw the conclusion that present tense in
the narrower sense is lexicalised (Comrie 1993:10), i. e. the two examples can be
distinguished from a semantic point of view:
(i)
(ii)
The Browns live in London.
The Browns now live in London.
While the Simple Present Tense in (i) expresses general time as depicted in Figure 2,
namely the Browns’ address is permanent, it is evident that (ii) can be replaced with
(iii)
The Browns are living in London,
which gives evidence for the same function as Present Continuous Tense has. (We
need not add to the explanation that both (ii) and (iii) imply that London is a temporary
address the Browns live at.)
Not only can Present Tense be lexicalised but also grammaticalised (Comrie
1993:10), i. e. the verb forms of walk and walks are grammatical ones of Present Tense in
contrast with walked as that of Past Tense. While Present Tense forms are unmarked from the
point of view of tense, the Past Tense forms are marked by -ed: work-Ø-Ø, work-Ø-s, worked-Ø.
English, unlike many other languages, does not have a separate verb (i. e. a marked
verb) form for the future. Consequently, there is no distinct future tense in English, even
though there are, of course, many different ways in which we can talk about the future time
<http://www.helsinki.fi/…>:





The parcel will arrive tomorrow. (modal auxiliary will)
The parcel is going to arrive tomorrow. (be going to)
The parcel is arriving tomorrow. (present progressive)
The parcel arrives tomorrow. (simple present)
The parcel will be arriving tomorrow. (modal auxiliary will + progressive
aspect)
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Bibliography
Comrie 1993
Comrie, Bernard. Tense. Reprinted. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1993, ©1985. x, 139 p. : ill. ; 22.7 cm
(Cambridge textbooks in linguistics) ISBN 0-521-28138-5
Giering et al. 1984
Giering, Dieter et al. English grammar : a university handbook. 4., unveränderte Auflage. VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie,
1984. 406 S. : ill. ; 24,6 cm ISBN --Lyons 1992
Lyons, John. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Reprinted. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1992, ©1968.
vii, 519 p. : ill. ; … cm ISBN 0-521-09510-7
Quirk and Greenbaum 1985
Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney. A university grammar of English. 14th impression. Harlow : Longman, 1985.
xi, 484 p. : ill. ; 22.7 cm ISBN 0-582-55207-9
Quirk et al. 1991
Quirk, R. , et al. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. 9th impression. London ; New York: Longman,
1991, ©1985. 1779 p. : ill. ; 25.2 cm ISBN 0-582-51734-6
Trask 1999
Trask, R. L. A dictionary of grammatical terms and linguistics. Reprinted. London ; New York : Routledge, 1999,
©1993. xv, 335 p. : ill. ; 21.7 cm ISBN 0-435-08628-0
Webliography
<http://www.helsinki.fi/~mpalande/meaning_of_tense_and_aspect.html>
Chronometric systems serve to define states-of-affairs with regard to their position on
the time line, i. e. with regard to their duration, frequency and chronological order. In English,
this kind of chronological timing is expressed by temporal phrases with explicit or implicit
date, indicating a point of time, e. g. at 9 o’clock, in 1978, a timespan, e. g. from 8 to 10,
during the 30s, over a very long time, or frequency, e. g. every second day, often.
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