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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI Maiduguri, Nigeria CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ARTS MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MCM 101 B: UNIT: 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 ii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION Published UNIT: 2 2008© All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in writing from the University of Maiduguri. This text forms part of the learning package for the academic programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of Maiduguri. Further enquiries should be directed to the: Coordinator Centre for Distance Learning University of Maiduguri P. M. B. 1069 Maiduguri, Nigeria. This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria. ISBN: 978-8133- iii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 P R E F A C E This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge required. The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the selection of reading materials required. The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help in improving access to University education. iv CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 Professor M. M. Daura Ag Vice-Chancellor v CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise. The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with more information from the list of references and suggested readings available in the study unit. PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS 1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES) This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the study unit for you to assess yourself. 2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) vi CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center. You are expected to work on your own in responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be added to your TMA scores. Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the different units of your study. vii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE The course is divided into five topics. Each topic is divided into sub-topics. Topic 1 explains attitude Topic 2. Discusses Mass Communication Topic 3. Looks at organizational communication, Topic 4 discusses mediated communication, Topic 5 looks at listening as indispensable in communication. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 1 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MCM 101 B: UNIT: 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES PREFACE - - - - - - - - - iii HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION - - - - - iv INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE - 1 TOPIC: 1. ATTITUDE - - 3 2. MASS COMMUNICATION 10 3. 13 4. MEDIATED COMMUNICATION - - 17 CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 2 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 5. LISTENING - - - - UNIT: 2 - - - 22 SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 3 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TOPIC 1: TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 1.0 TOPIC: ATTITUDE - - - - - 3 1.1 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 4 1.2 OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - - 4 1.3 IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 4 1.3.1 ATTITUDE - - - - - - - 4 - 5 - 1.3.2. ATTITUDE BELIEFS OPINION PREJUDICE 1.3.3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES - - 5 1.3.4. ATTITUDE CHANGE/MODIFICATION - - 6 1.3.5. FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE - - - - 7 1.4 SUMMARY - - - - - - 8 1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - 8 1.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 8 1.7 SUGGESTED READING - - - - - - 9 - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 4 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 1.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 2 ATTITUDE 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing attitude, its definition, its relationship with beliefs, opinion and prejudice, the development of attitude and functions. 1.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic students would be able to. i. Define attitude ii. Explain attitude, beliefs opinion and prejudice iii. Explain attitude change and modification iv. Discuss the functions of attitude 1.3 IN-TEXT 1.3.1 ATTITUDE According to Lambert, 1964 “An attitude is an organized consistent in manner of things reacting to people, group, social issue or mere generally to any event in the environment. A comprehensive definition of an attitude is the one given by Allport (1935) according to him, an attitude is a mental stage of readiness organized through experience, exerting a direct or dynamic influence upon the individual’s responses to all objects in situation with which it is related. It is a pre-disposition to responses in a certain way to a person, object situation event or idea. This response may come without conscious reflection, a person who shows a certain attitude is reaching to conception of that thing rather than to its actual state. Another is more enduring than a mood or whim, it produces a consistent responses. For example a man who has unfriendly attitude toward foreigners will tend to show dislike for most foreigners he meets or hear about. The essential component of an attitude is through beliefs, feelings or emotions or tendencies to react. Attitudes are therefore said to be formed when these components are so interrelated that specific feelings and reactions tendencies becomes consistently associated with the attitude object. Our attitude is the cause of coping with and adjusting to our social environment. Once attitude are developed, they bring regularity to our mood of reacting and facilitate social adjustment. In early stage of attitude development, the components can be modified by new experiences. Later however, their organization may become inflexible and stereotype, usually, become what we have been encouraging over long period of time to react in standard ways to particular events or groups. As an attitude becomes firmly set, we become too ready to categorize people or events according to emotionally toned parklands of thoughts so that we fail to recognize individuality or uniqueness. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 5 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 We are not fully conscious of most of our attitudes nor are we aware of the extensive influence they have on our social behaviour but of we analyzed oneself closely one can learn to detect the function of selected, powerful attitude. If an individual has develop a strong negative or positive attitude toward communism, he considers and evaluates any actions by communists or anti communists in a sterotype fashion. On careful self analysis he can actually sense his reaction, hatred or implied identifications as he absorbs their activities. Similarly when a new acquaintance stands out to have the same view as we do towards various social issues, we can sense the growth of favourable feelings towards him. 1.3.2 ATTITUDE BELIEFS OPINION PREJUDICE We have already seen beliefs as one of the component of attitudes. Beliefs, is a mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition without the full intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth. Belief has been distinguished according to their degree of certainty; a surmise or a suspicion, an opinion or a conviction. Belief becomes knowledge only when the truth of a proposition becomes evidence to the believers. Note that belief in someone or something is basically different from belief that a proposition is true. Attitudes are closely related to opinions involves a person’s judgment about a likelihood of event or relationship, where as attitude evolves a persons wishes and desires about events or relationships. We can distinguish between opinion and attitude in that a person can state his opinion in word but may not always be able to express his attitude in the same way. He will reveal his attitude by his action and only indirectly by the context of his statements. Attitudes are also related to prejudice a prejudice is a rigidly fixed, attitudes usually unfavourable. An attitude becomes a prejudice when the pre-disposition is so strong that no attention is paid to evidence that might change reaction. Example if a man says that all government employees’ graft, he is showing an attitude. If he refuses to accept proof that many government employees are honest he has developed a prejudice. 1.3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES Attitude are defined as consistent, perpetual way of thinking feelings and reacting to events and persons in other to indicates that attitudes are learned through, modes of adjustment, or in other words complex habits. Their development therefore should follow standard principles of learning. Three important principles that influence learning of attitudes according to Lambert, (1964) includes. Association, transfer and need satisfaction. Much evidence suggests that we learn feelings and reaction tendencies through association and need satisfaction. That is we learn to fear and avoid people who are associated with unpleasant happenings and to like and approach those associated with pleasurable happening. By avoiding unpleasant, situation and approaching pleasant situation we satisfy primary needs for pleasure or comfort. For example our most CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 6 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 basic attitudes are learned in infancy through interaction with our parents. Typically an infant develops strong attitude towards parents because they minister to his needs and comfort. In time as parents become associated with punishment as well as pleasure, the child’s attitude towards them will become complex and ambivalent. Research findings has shown that unfavorable attitude develop, or become intensified, in social context where we experience disappointments or failures in the presence of others who by comparison are more successful. Accordingly it is not unusual to find that members of a whole community developing negative attitudes towards racial or immigrant groups whom they associate with their economic difficulties. It is considered a truism by many psychologists that we learn attitudes through transfer essentially the same way we learn meanings of concepts through instruction. People can transfer attitudes to one another by suggesting ways to organize and integrate certain basic ideas in a close relationship. Feelings and reaction tendencies can also be transferred as well as thoughts and beliefs. For example somebody could transfer a completely favourable attitude towards Chadian’s by describing them as “maltreated” “hard working”, “friendly” and lively. However, he could transfer a negative attitude by describing them as foreign undependable, dirty untrustworthy and bandits, That is to say, we incorporate all attitude directed towards us. Because we are selective which attitude we pick means that lip satisfaction is usually involved when attitude are transferred. We also adopt attitude of other important people outside the family as we grow older, we incorporate attitudes that seem appropriate for belonging to groups we consider important. Sometimes we change attitude as a means of leaving one group and becoming part of another. 1.3.4 ATTITUDE CHANGE/MODIFICATION At first glance, the changing of attitude may seem to be a simple matter, since attitudes are one, it should be easy enough to modify their intensity or replace an undesirable one. Attitudes are however not as easy to modify or replace as they are learned. As we have seen, once an attitude is developed, it becomes an integral part his whole style of behaviour changing one’s attitude is not easy, because it becomes part of network that gives order to one’s personality. Attitudes develop in the home or through early experiences in groups are particularly instrumental in forming the structure of attitude network, and are particularly resistant to change. Nevertheless, we know that attitudes can be changed under certain conditions. For more research is needed however to explain both the persistent and the modifiability of attitudes. Social psychologists agree that attitudes are particularly resistant to change. a. They have been learned early in life. b. They help satisfy needs CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 7 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 c. They have been deeply integrated into one’s personality and style of one’s behaviour. Other important principles that aid or determine attitude change include the conditioning processes, role of awareness and exposure and effects of repetition. Conditioning plays an important part in the development of many part in many emotional development the same thing can be said about many attitude since an attitude is a tendency to respond emotionally (feeling) to a given attitude stimulus. Classical conditioning and Operant/instrumental conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to a condition where one stimulus (a) becomes a substance for another stimulus (b) as a result of A’s pairing or association with (b). This kind of conditioning plays an important role in both attitude formation and change. Advertisers in particular aware of this conditioning effect try to manipulate audience using it. In trying to swing audience positively towards the product, for example, they compare an attractive personality such as an athlete, movie star or a beautiful model, with the product they are trying to sell. They hope that the audience’s favourable attitude toward this personality will transfer to the associated product. Operant or instrumental conditioning refers to a situation where behaviour is modified by its consequences. In this type of learning the individual “operates” on the environment (does something). If this behaviours has favourable out come (it followed by a reward) there is chance, the action will be repeated. The behaviour has then been reinforced. In relation to attitude change or modification, if such attitudes draws negative response from the society and reinforce such attitudes if they draw approval (especially from personalities one respects). Insko (1965) undertook an experiment and found out that verbal approvals (whether positive or negative) towards student’s attitude in the unfilled states helps either in reinforcing or modifying such attitudes as the case may be. Berkowitz (1980) however, counter argue that, through a subject’s awareness of how his action may be rewarded facilitate behaviour change. It is not always the case or necessary he further argued that if the behaviour to be learned is fairly complex or entails problems solving persons who understand which actions may pay off one likely to exhibit the greatest learning on the other hand if the desired objective are fairly simple and don’t call for much thinking conditioning can occur without the individuals conditioning. The third principle that seeks to explain attitude change is mere exposure and the effects of repetition. 1.3.5 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES Attitudes, scholars have identified four major functions of attitudes these are: 1. The instrumental, adjective, or utilitarian function. This function is recognition of the fact that people strive to maximize the rewards in their external environment and to minimize the penalties (try to satisfy our needs.). The child develops favourable attitudes towards the subject in his world which are associated with the satisfaction of his need and can have CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 8 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 an unfavourable attitude towards the subject in his world which are associated with the satisfaction of his needs and an unfavourable attitude towards objects which torture or punish him. Attitudes acquired in the service are either the means for reaching the desired goal or avoiding the undesired ones or affecting association base upon experience in attaining motive satisfaction. 2. Ego defensive function: people not only seek to make the most of the external world and what it offers but they also expended a great deal of their energy on living with themselves, these mechanism by which the individual project his ego from his own acceptable impulse and from knowledge of threaten forces from without, and methods by which he reduces his anxiety’s created by such problems are known as mechanisms of ego defense. 3. The value expressive function: while the many attitude have the functions of preventing the individual from revealing to himself and others his true nature, other attitudes have the functions of giving positive expression to the central values and the type of person he conceive himself to be. 4. the knowledge function: individuals not only acquired beliefs in the interest of satisfying various specific needs they also seek knowledge to give meaning to what will otherwise be an in organized chaotic universe people need standard of frames of preface in understanding their world and attitudes help to supply such standards. Many attitudes we have already acquired give no sufficient basis for interpreting much of what we perceive to be important for us. According to Walter Lippman (1981) our already existing stereotype “are unordered, more or less consistent picture of the world, to which our habits our tastes, our capacities, our comforts and our hopes have adjusted themselves they may not be a complete picture of a possible world to which we have adopted”. It follows that new information will not modify all attitudes unless there is some inadequacy or in completeness or inconsistency in the existing attitudinal structure as it relates to the perception of new situations. 1.4 SUMMARY An attitude is an organized consistent in manner of things reacting to people, group social issue or more generally to any event in the environment. Beliefs in a mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition without the full intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth. Scholars have identified four functions of attitudes. These are the instrumental function, ego defensive function, the value expressive function and the knowledge function. 1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Define attitude 2. Briefly discuss attitude, beliefs opinion and prejudice. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 9 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 3. UNIT: 2 List the functions of attitudes 1.6 REFERENCES Karlins, M and Abelson, H.I (1970) Persuation: How Opinions And Attitudes Are Changed (2nd ed) Newyork; Sprincer In Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication. New York: McGraw Hill 1.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Karlins, M and Abelson, H.I (1970) Persuation: How Opinions And Attitudes Are Changed (2nd ed) Newyork; Sprincer In Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication. New York: McGraw Hill CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 10 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TOPIC 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 2.0 TOPIC: MASS COMMUNICATION - - - 10 2.1 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 11 2.2 OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 11 2.3 IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 11 2.3.1 MASS COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE - - 11 - 2.3.2 MASS COMMUNICATION OPPORTUNITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES - - - - - 11 2.4 SUMMARY - - - - - - 12 2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - 12 2.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 12 2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 12 - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 11 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 2.0. TOPIC: UNIT: 2 MASS COMMUNICATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing mass communication, its definition, culture, mass communication and culture, mass communication opportunities and responsibilities. 2.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, you should be able to: i. define mass communication ii. explain mass communication and culture iii. discuss mass communication opportunities and responsibilities 2.3 IN-TEXT 2.3.1 MASS COMMUNICATION Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audiences. Schramm recast his and Osgood general model of communication to help us visualize the particular aspects of the mass communication process. The model and the Osgood and Schramm scheme have much in common interpreters, encoding, decoding and massages – but it is their differences that are most significant for our understanding of how mass communication differs from other forms of communication. For example, where as the original model includes “message”, the mass communication model offers “many identical messages”. Additionally mass communication model specifies “feed back” where as the interpersonal communication model does not when two or more people communicate face-to-face, the participants can immediately and clearly recognize the feedback residing in the reciprocal messages. In Schramm mass communication model, feedback is represented by a dotted line labeled delayed inferential feedback. This feedback is indirect and direct. Television executives, for example, must wait a day at the very minimum, and sometimes a week or a month, to discover the ratings for new programmes. 2.3.2 MASS COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE Culture defines our realities, but who contributes to the construction and maintenance of culture? Because culture is constructed and maintained through communication, it is in communication that cultural power resides. And because mass media are such a significant part of the modern world, more and more attention is being paid to the interaction between mass communication and culture. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 12 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 2.3.3 MASS COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 OPPORTUNITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Because culture can limit and divide or liberate and unite, it offers us infinite opportunities to use communication for good if we choose to do so. Carey wrote, because we have looked at each new advance in communication technology as opportunities for politics and economics, we have devoted them, almost exclusively, to government and trade. We have rarely seen them as opportunities to expend (our) powers to learn and exchange ideas and experience. Who are “we” in this quote? We are everyone involved in creating and maintaining the culture that defines us. We are the people involved in mass media industries and the people that compose their audiences. Together we allow mass communication not only to occur but also to contribute to the creation and maintenance of culture. 2.4 SUMMARY Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the mass media and the audiences. Culture defines our realities. Because culture is constructed and maintained through communication, it is in communication that cultural power resides. 2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Define mass communication 2. Explain mass communication and culture 3. Discuss mass communication opportunities and responsibilities 2.6 REFERENCES Baran, S.J. (2004) Introduction to Mass Communication and Culture. (3rd edition) New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. 2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Baran, S.J. (2004) Introduction to Mass Communication and Culture. (3rd edition) New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 13 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TOPIC 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 3.0 TOPIC: MEDIATED COMMUNICATION - - - 13 3.1. INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 14 3.2. OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 14 3.3. IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 14 3.3.1. MEDIATED COMMUNICATION - - - 14 - 3.3.2. TYPES OF COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION - - - - - 14 3.4. SUMMARY - - - - - - 15 3.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES - - - - 16 3.6. REFERENCES - - - - - - 16 3.7. SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 16 - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 14 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 3.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 2 MEDIATED COMMUNICATION 3.1. INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing mediated communication and computer mediated communication, types and computer mediated communication as a process. 3.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic students would be able to: i. define mediated communication ii. identify types of computer mediated communication iii. explain synchronous and a synchronous communication. iv. discuss how computer-mediated communication affects communication process. the 3.3. IN-TEXT 3.3.1. MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Mediated communication is any communication interaction using technology as primary channel. Mediated is also any form of communication that employs electronic means. Computer-mediated communication often referred to as CMC, is human-tohuman communication using networked computer environment to facilitate interaction (shaff martin, & Gay, 2001). CMC is different from mediated communication because the human-to-human interaction is interactive. When you e-mail another person; that person can respond to your message when you engage in an online chat, other people can interact with you by asking questions or responding to your statements; more advanced programmes like Microsoft net meeting can even be used to facilitate face-to-face discussion over the internet. In each of these situations the communication is interactive. You are both a sender and receiver of communication. Individuals involved in the computer-mediated interaction serve simultaneously as source and receiver. Computers, connected via the interest or a computer network, act as the channel of communication. Because the interaction is personal, the message can consist of anything the two people wish to discuss; a movie, politics or even plans for a date. And because CMC is interactive feed back naturally occurs through the exchange of interactive messages. 3.3.2. TYPES OF COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATION Nearly every form of computer mediated communication utilizes the internet or net worked computers to facilitate human to human interaction. E-mail for CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 15 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 example can travel around the world using the internet or across the building using a company’s network. Although all CMC shares the concept of networking, the similarities in types of CMC end there. Just like mass media have several varieties, several varieties of CMC also exist. One way to classify types of CMC is to determine whether the communication is synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous communication occurs when members of the communication interaction are able to interact in real time and each participant is simultaneously a sender and receiver. For example a face-to-face conversation or telephone call is synchronous communication. Asynchronous communication occurs when the communication interaction has delays and each participant must take turns being the sender and receiver. If you have ever had a penpal or kept in touch with a friend or family member by mail, you have engaged in a synchronous communication. Electronic mail: Electronic mail or e-mail uses the internet or a computer network to send add resemble messages to another person connected to the internet or network e-mail is a popular method of communication for both organizations and individuals. Bulletin board systems: bulletin board systems (BBS) are text-based a synchronous communication tools to disseminate information to a large number of people. BBS discussions housed on websites are focused on a particular topic of internet. BBS like discussion can also take place using a listserv, which is an e-mail based discussion. Both web-based and email based discussions allow one person to asynchronously post a message to any number of people who have access to the discussion. Instant messaging and chat: instant messaging (IM) is a text-based form of synchronous communication that allows users to connect two computers, over the internet and have a “conversation” through their computers. Instant messaging required specialized soft ware often free that allows you to contact other people and establish instant messaging. Internet relay chat (IRC) is a text based synchronous communication allows multiple users to interact in real time via the internet. Various websites host chat rooms that allow multiple users to log on, often with anonymous McName, and interact with other users. Audio-video conferencing: it users the internet or a network to connect two or more multimedia capable computers for live, interactive conversations using visual and auditory channels of communication. By using computer microphones and inexpensive cameras, it is possible to conduct inexpensive conversations with video over internet. Multi user environments: Multi user environments (MUDs) are web based virtual worlds where participants interact and engage in fantasy role-playing. CMC and the communication process unlike mass communicate on a personal level. Because of the personalized nature of CMC, the internet is quickly becoming a CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 16 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 tool for creating, enacting and maintaining personal relationships not feasible through “small mail” long distance telephone calls. 3.4. SUMMARY Mediated communication is any form of communication that occurs through electronic means. Various forms of CMC are characterized as synchronous or asynchronous communication. To use CMC effectively, users must adopt their communication to the CMC environment. 3.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Define mediated communication 2. Identify types of computer-mediated communication 3. Explain the differences between synchronous and asynchronous communication 4. Discuss how computer-mediated communication affects the communication process 3.6. REFERENCES Pearson J, et al (2003) Human Communication Boston USA: McGraw Hill. 3.7. SUGGESTED READINGS Pearson J, et al (2003) Human Communication Boston USA: McGraw Hill. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 17 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TOPIC 4: TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 4.0. TOPIC: - ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION - 17 4.1. INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 18 4.2. OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 18 4.3. IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 18 - - 18 - 4.3.1. ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION 4.3.2. PARADIGM DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION - - - - - 18 4.3.3. ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION - - 19 4.3.4 NETWORK - 4.3.5. - - - - - 20 INTERDEPENDENCE - - - - - 20 4.3.6. RELATIONSHIP - - - - - - 20 4.3.7. ENVIRONMENT - - - - - - 20 4.3.8. UNCERTAINTY - - - - - - 21 - - - - - - 21 - - - - 21 - - 4.4 SUMMARY - 4.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 21 4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 21 - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 18 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 4.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 2 ORGANISATION COMMUNICATION 4.1. INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing organizational communication, paradigm and definition of organizational communication and the process. 4.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, students would be able to. i. define organization ii. explain the paradigm of organizational communication iii. the perception of organizational communication 4.3. IN-TEXT 4.3.1 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION Redding and San-born define organizational communication as the sending and receiving of information within a complex organization. Their perception of the field includes the following; internal communication; human relations; management union relations; downward, up word, and horizontal communication skills of speaking listening and writing; and communication programme evaluation. Katz and Kahn perceive organizational communication as the flow of information, and the transmission of meaning within an organization. Using the general systems model developed for the physical sciences by Von Bertalanffy (1956,1962) and others Katz and Kahn define organizations as open systems and discuss such properties as the importing of energy from the environment; the transformation of this energy into a product or service into the environment; and the reenergizing of the system from energy sources found once again in the environment Zelko and Dance primarily discuss the “skills” of communicating in businesses and professions (speech making, listening, interview, counseling, conferences, selling, persuading). They perceive organizational communication as an interdependent system that includes both internal (upward, downward, and horizontal) and external (public relations, sales advertising) communications. 4.3.2 PARADIGM AND DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION Organizational communication can mean and refer to whatever an author wants. Despite such a variety of viewpoints, a few common strands can be detected in many of these perceptions. 1. Organizational communication occurs within a complex open system which is influenced by and influences its environment, both internal (called culture) and external. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 19 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 2. Organizational communication involves messages and their flow, purpose, direction, and media. 3. Organization communication feelings relationships and skills. 4.3.3. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION Is the process of creating and exchanging messages within a network of interdependent relationships to cope with environmental uncertainty. This perception of the field of organizational communication includes seven key concepts: process, message, network, interdependence, relationships, environment and uncertainty. Each concept is defined and illustrated briefly. 4.3.3.1 PROCESS An organization is a dynamic open system that creates and exchanges messages among its members and between its members and its environment. We talk about “process” because the phenomenon of creating and exchanging messages is ongoing, ever changing and continuous. Thus an organization is an open process in which messages are created and exchange within a network of interdependent relationships to cope with environmental uncertainly. 4.3.3.2 MESSAGE A symbol is something that stands for something else. A word, for example, is a symbol when it refers to an object. To communicate a person must be able to evolve a mental picture of something (create a concept), give it a name, and develop a feeling about it. Effective communication with another person implies that the concept the name and the feeling are similar to those of the other person. In other words effective communication means that you and I refer to the same things when we talk. We share understanding In organizational communication, we study the creation and exchange of messages throughout organizations. Organizational message behaviour can be examined according to several taxonomies language modality intended receivers, method of diffusion and purpose flow. Language modality differentiates verbal (linguistic) from non verbal (non linguistic) messages. Examples of verbal messages in organizations are letters, speeches and conversations. With verbal messages we are interested in studying the exact word choice used in the speech letter or conversation. Intended receivers include people either within or outside the organization. Message in the first instance are intended for internal sue, and those in the second instance, for external use. Examples of internal message systems includes: memos, bulletins and meetings. External message behaviour is illustrated by advertising campaigns, public relation efforts sales efforts and civic duties. Internal message are intended for consumption by the employees of the organization. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 20 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 Method of diffusion identifies the particular communication activity employed during the sending of the messages to other people. Diffusion implies that messages are spread throughout the organization, either widely or narrowly. Here we are interested in how messages are spread. Most organizational communication diffusion methods can be divided into two general categories: those using software and those using hardware for dissemination. Hardware methods, depends upon electrical or mechanical power to make them function. Thayer presents four specific functions of message flow within organization: to inform, to regulate, to persuade, and to regulate, to persuade, and to integrate. 4.3.4. NETWORK Organizations are composed of series of people, each of whom occupies a specific position or role. Creation and exchange of messages are among these people take place over a set of pathways called a communication network. A communication network may include two people only, a few people or an entire organization. Many factors influence the nature and scope of the network such as role relationships. Direction of message flow, serial nature of message flow, and content of the message. 4.3.5. INTERDEPENDENCE Earlier, we defined an organization as an open system whose parts are all related to its whole and its environment. We say the nature of this relationship is interdependent or interlocking because all parts subsystems, affect and are affected by each other. This means that a change in any part of the system will affect all other parts of the system. This also means that, in a sense, communication network within an organization overlap. Implications for the concept of interdependence centre on the relationships between the people who occupy the various organizational roles. For example, when managers make a decision, they would be wise to account for the implications of their decision on the entire organization of course, one way to compensate for the interdependent relationships affected by and affecting a decision is to communicate all possible message to all possible within the organization. Nationally so much information would cause the organization to collapse from information over load. 4.3.6. RELATIONSHIP The fifth key concept inherent in our definition of organizational communication is relationship. Exactly what relationships are important for study in an organization? Since an organization is open, living social system, its connecting parts function in the hands of people. In other words, the network through which message travel in an organization is connected by people. Thus, one of our interests is to study the human relationships within the organization by focusing on the communication behaviour of the people involved in a relationship. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 21 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 4.3.7. ENVIROMENT Duncan (1972) has defined the environment as “the totality of physical and social factors that are taken into account in the decision making behaviour of individuals in the system”. He further breaks down and analyses the environment in terms of its internal ad external components. The farmer refers to the personnel components, the functional and staff components. The former refers to the personnel component, the functional and staff component, and the organizational level component (e.g. objectives/goals, products services integration). The external component refers to customers, supplies competitors, technology etc. As the environment changes, new information demands are placed upon the organization. It must cope with these changes in environment by creating and exchanging messages both internally among relevant units and externally to important publics. Organizations that do will live and probably be effective those that do not will die. 4.3.8 UNCERTAINTY An organization creates and exchanges messages among its members to reduce the uncertainty they face from environmental factors some organizations, such as research and developmental organizations, faced with highly complex task, require a high degree of integration, and this; fewer message, exchanges to confront uncertainty in the environment. Uncertainty can occur when members of an organization receives too much information or more than they really need to confront the demands of their environment. If one of the major concerns of organizational communication is to determine exactly how much information people need to reduce their uncertainty without being overloaded. 4.4. SUMMARY Organizational communication is the sending and receiving of information within a complex organization. Organizational communication is also the process of creating and exchanging messages within a network of interdependent relationships to cope with environmental uncertainty. This perception includes seven key concepts: process message network, interdependence, relationship, environment and uncertainty. 4.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Define organizational communication 2. What is your perception of organizational communication? 3. List seven key concepts in organizational communication CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 22 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 4.6. REFERENCES Goldhaber, M.G. (1990) Organizational Communication (5th Edition). USA Wm C Brown Publishers 4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Goldhaber, M.G. (1990) Organizational Communication (5th edition) USA: Wm C Brown Publishers. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 23 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TOPIC 5: TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 5.0. TOPIC: THE LISTENING PROCESS 5.1. INTRODUCTION - - - 5.2. OBJECTIVES - - 5.3. IN-TEXT - - - 5.3.1 LISTENING PROCESS - - - 22 - - - - 23 - - - - - 23 - - - - - 23 - - - - - 23 5.3.2. LISTENING AS PART OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS- 23 5.3.3. LEVELS OF LISTENING - - - - 23 5.3.4. PHYSICAL BARRIERS TO LISTENING - - 24 5.3.5. IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS - - - 25 5.4. SUMMARY - - - - - - 25 5.5. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - 25 5.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 25 5.7. SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 25 - - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 24 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 5.0. TOPIC: UNIT: 2 THE LISTENING PROCESS 5.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing listening, listening as a communication process, levels of listening and improving listening and mental barriers to listening. 5.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, students would be able to: i. explain listening ii. discuss listening as a communication process iii. discuss the levels of listening iv. explain the mental barriers to listening. 5.3. IN-TEXT 5.3.1. THE LISTENING PROCESS When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the listening process, we have opportunities to effect communication positively or negatively. 1. Sensing: simply leaving the words before Ahmed can be a good listener, Aisha must get his attention. After she does so, Ahmed can receive the message she wants to communicate. Later, they meet in Ahmed’s office so they can hear each other better. 2. Interpreting: deriving meaning from the words Aisha’s Message is clear. Ahmed has no problem understanding what she is saying. 3. Evaluating: judging what the message is about in context. Ahmed hears more than the words; he is particularly good at hearing everything Aisha is saying. She is doing more than talking about her upcoming meeting with patience. She is warned and wants advice. 4. Responding: twining listening into a two-way process. This step allows feedback, advice action and reaction. 5.3.2. LISTENING AS PART OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS To appreciate listening, think about its role in the communication process. Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Feed back enables us to modify a message and improve understanding. Listening is essential to feed back. If someone merely hears a message, there can be no genuine feed back. 5.3.3. LEVELS OF LISTENING CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 25 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 While we want to be better listeners, it is probably not realistic to be listening intently all the time. Listening takes concentration and effort, so we reserve our most demanding listening skills for special occasions. We can appreciate this when we consider the levels of listening. 1. Listening for enjoyment. This is the easiest of the five levels of listening. We listen for enjoyment when we listen to music, TV or radio for our own entertainment or amusement. Listening for enjoyment requires momentary concentration. 2. Listening for information: when you listen to a class discussion or an informative speech, you are usually listening for information. This level of listening requires more concentration than listening for enjoyment listening for information carries with it an expectation of retention. Retention the remembering and recall of information, is an expectation of this level of listening. 3. Critical listening: critical listening is an even more active process. Not only does it involve listening for information, it involves analyzing and evaluating information. A critical listener will take in information and retain it. At the same time, a critical listener questions the information and tests it against other information. A critical listener is able to give more thoughtful and perceptive feedback. Don’t confuse critical thinking with being critical. We usually think that being critical is a negative quality. 4. Precision listening: precision refers to exactness or the ability to distinguish clearly. Listening with precision goes beyond listening critically. Precision listening is listening with attention to details that give you clues to the speaker’s emotion or state of mind. Precision listener, not only hear the facts, they hear the subtle change in a speakers voice that reveal what the speaker feels. 5. Empathic listening: this is the highest level of listening. It requires concentration, retention, and judgment more important, it requires empathy. We have preciously defined empathy as “the ability to put your self in someone else’s place and understand his or her feelings”. Listening with empathy requires the skills of a precision listener plus one very important motive. 5.3.4. PHYSICAL BARRIERS TO LISTENING The most common physical barriers to listening are the physical barriers to hearing itself. A total or partial hearing loss will make listening more difficult but certainly not impossible other physical barriers include common circumstances such as poor audio system. Note that both speakers and listeners share responsibility for good listening mental barriers to listening. Mental barriers to listening are more common mental barrier is lack of concentration, a wandering mind or inattention. It’s no wonder that our minds CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 26 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 sometimes wonder when are listening our brain process words at over 500 words per minute. Most speakers communicate at 125-250 words per minute. When we think faster than other talk (especially when we listen for information criticism, precision, and empathy) we should fill in the extra time with empathy judgment analysis and the other skills that help us listen. Cultural barriers to listening when people from two different cultures try to communicate, both need to take care that the communication is effective some times cultural barrier can be language. It’s obvious that a Hausa man and an Ibgo man might have to overcome language to communicate better, but even speakers of the same language sometimes have cultural differences. One major barrier to listening is accents. For examples an Englishman listening to non-native speakers of English may require high level of concentration. One strategy for managing this potential barrier is to listen for over all content rather than trying to understand each specific word the speaker uses. 5.3.6. IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS Developing good listening habits (and fighting poor listening habits) is a lifelong search for understanding and being understood. 1. Work on concentration: let your mind wonder. Look at the person who is speaking and put yourself in his or her place. 2. Practice good listening. We all have plenty of chances to listen. Listening “exercises” can include listening to others as well as listening to your environment. 3. Prepare yourself to listen. Take care that you situate yourself so you can see and hear. If you are going to listen to a topic for the first time, consider researching and finding out about it. If there are preparatory materials (an assignment in the text, a handout, an e-mail a web site) read it. Make notes if necessary. 5.4. SUMMARY When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the listening process we have opportunities to affect communication positively or negatively. To appreciate listening, we should examine its role in the communication process. Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Listening is therefore essential to feedback. It is therefore necessary for us to listen to enable us give feedback on a message communicated to us. 5.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. explain listening 2. discuss listening as a communication process CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 27 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 5.6. REFERENCES Payne, J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepa KS: Clark Publishing INC. 5.7. SUGGESTED READINGS Payne, J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepa KS: Clark Publishing INC. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 28 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 SOLUTIONS TO THE EXERCISES TOPIC: 1 1. An attitude is an organized consistent in manner of things reacting to people, group social issue or more generally to any event in the environment. 2. Beliefs in a mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition without the full intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth. Opinions involve a person’s wishes and desires about events or relationships. While prejudice is a rigidly fixed attitudes usually unfavourable. 3. Scholars have identified four functions of attitudes. These are the instrumental function, ego defensive function, the value expressive function and the knowledge function. TOPIC: 2 1. Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audiences. 2. Culture defines our realities, but who contributes to the construction and maintenance of culture? Because culture is constructed and maintained through communication, it is in communication that cultural power resides. And because mass media are such a significant part of the modern world, more and more attention is being paid to the interaction between mass communication and culture. 3. Carey wrote, because we have looked at each new advance in communication technology as opportunities for politics and economics, we have devoted them, almost exclusively, to government and trade. We have rarely seen them as opportunities to expend (our) powers to learn and exchange ideas and experience. TOPIC: 3 1. Mediated communication is any communication interaction using technology as primary channel. Mediated is also any form of communication that employs electronic means. 2. Electronic mail, Bulletin board systems, instant messaging and chat, Audiovideo conferencing and Multi user environments. 3. Synchronous communication occurs when members of the communication interaction are able to interact in real time and each participant is simultaneously a sender and receiver. For example a face-to-face conversation or telephone call is synchronous communication. Asynchronous communication occurs when the communication interaction has delays and each participant must take turns being the sender and receiver. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 29 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 4. UNIT: 2 CMC and the communication process unlike mass communicate on a personal level. Because of the personalized nature of CMC, the internet is quickly becoming a tool for creating, enacting and maintaining personal relationships not feasible through “small mail” long distance telephone calls. TOPIC: 4 1. Redding and San-born define organizational communication as the sending and receiving of information within a complex organization. 2. This perception of the field of organizational communication includes seven key concepts: process, message, network, interdependence, relationships, environment and uncertainty. 3. The key concepts includes: process, message, network, interdependence, relationships, environment and uncertainty. TOPIC: 5 1. When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the listening process, we have opportunities to effect communication positively or negatively. 2. To appreciate listening, think about its role in the communication process. Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Feed back enables us to modify a message and improve understanding. Listening is essential to feed back. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 30 MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 2 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Discuss the role of listening in a communication process 2. What do you understand by attitude, beliefs, opinion and prejudice? 3. Discuss the relationship between mass communication and culture 4. How does computer-mediated communication affects the communication process? 5. Discuss the paradigm of organizational communication? CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 31