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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI Maiduguri, Nigeria CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ARTS MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MCM 100: UNIT: 3 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 ii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION Published UNIT: 3 2008© All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior permission in writing from the University of Maiduguri. This text forms part of the learning package for the academic programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of Maiduguri. Further enquiries should be directed to the: Coordinator Centre for Distance Learning University of Maiduguri P. M. B. 1069 Maiduguri, Nigeria. This text is being published by the authority of the Senate, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria. ISBN: 978-8133- iii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 P R E F A C E This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can do most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit is different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers have made efforts to make the study material rich enough but learners need to do some extra reading for further enrichment of the knowledge required. The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities and where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to guide the selection of reading materials required. The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no doubt help in improving access to University education. iv CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 Professor M. M. Daura Ag Vice-Chancellor v CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to simplify your study. In each topic of the unit, we have introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment exercise. The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will be available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read further you could supplement the study with more information from the list of references and suggested readings available in the study unit. PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS 1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES) This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the end of the study unit for you to assess yourself. 2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) vi CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of examination type questions for you to answer and send to the center. You are expected to work on your own in responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination, which will be added to your TMA scores. Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the different units of your study. vii CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE The course is divided into five topics. Each topic is also divided into subtopics. Topic I defines communication and why we study communication. Topic 2; contexts and levels Topic 3; Looks at postulates of communication. Topic 4; examines the barriers to effective communication. Topic 5 looks at model as a concept and communication models. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 1 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MCM 100: UNIT: 3 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES PREFACE - - - - - - - - - iii HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT - - - - - - - - - - - - iv INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE - 1 TOPIC: 1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION, WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION? - 3 2. CONTEXTS / LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION - - - 8 3. POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION - - - 15 4. BARRIERS - - TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 19 CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 2 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 5. MODELS OF COMMUNICATION - UNIT: 3 - - - 22 SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 3 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC 1: TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 1.0 TOPIC: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION - - - - 3 1.1 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - - 4 1.2 OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - - - 4 1.3 IN-TEXT - - - - - - - - 4 1.3.1. COMMUNICATION - - - - - - 4 - - - - 5 - - 5 - 1.3.2. WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION 1.3.3. THE FRAMEWORK OF COMMUNICATION 1.3.4. COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION - - - 6 1.4 SUMMARY - - - - - - - 7 1.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - - 7 1.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - - 7 1.7 SUGGESTED READING - - - - - - - 7 - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 4 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 1.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 3 COMMUNICATION 1.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing what communication is, why study communication and the framework of communication. 1.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic you should be able to: i. Explain what communication is and why you should study it. ii. Explain the framework of communication 1.3 IN-TEXT 1.3.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? Man is a communication animal. His life depends on it. Without communication man would live a purposeless life. In fact he would be a lifeless being unable to relate with himself and things in his environment. Communication is the basis in which man establishes a relationship with himself and things in his environment. It is the current which runs through all human history. We use it to reduce uncertainty in a vast and challenging world. Communication is the engine that empowers every human activity. Through it, we exchange symbols, establish relationships, banish fear and “blast off the barriers to oneness and understanding” (Wilson, 1997). Akpan (1987) affirms the centralness of communication in human affairs saying: “without communication we cease to exist as social creatures because communication is a social affair”. Other definitions by scholars includes the following: Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred from one person to another (R. Chappell & W. L. Read 1984). Communication is the process by which one person (or a group) shares and imparts information to another (or group) and clearly understands one another (Rita Udall & shale Udall, 1979:5). Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the giving of understandable information and receiving understandable messages by another party so that it can be understood and acted upon (E.C. Eyre, 1983). The communication process involves all acts of transmitting message to channels which link people, to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to transmit messages, the means by which messages are received and stored, and the rules, CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 5 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 customs and conventions which define and regulate human relationships and events. (Frank O. Ugboajah, 1985). Communication is the process involving the passing of messages through the use of symbols which all parties in the communication encounter understand. It involves the exchange of ideas opinions attitudes and beliefs between people (Sybill, James, Isaac Ode and Oludayo Soola 1990). Communication is a continuous, irreversible transitive process involving communicators who occupy different but over lapping environment and are simultaneously senders and receivers of message many of which are distorted by physical and psychological noise (CRB Alder and N. Towne, 1990). 1.3.2 WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION? The study of communication is to enable us: 1. To understand ourselves as social beings 2. To understand ourselves as people. 1.3.2.1 WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION? We can come up with probably a thousand and one reason why we study communication for example to communicate more effectively, to understand the barriers to effective communication etc. However we can subsume all these reasons into two. 1. To understand ourselves as social beings. Communication is a significant social experience which occurs in all our relationships, through communication we get to know others, get others to know us, we make acquaintances, friends, lovers all through communication we create and destroy relationships through communication. Thus through the study of communication, we can bring to our attention the various strategies we may use in our own communication, to help us work better with others and to make mutually beneficial compromises helpful for everyone involved, we can also through the study of communication understand people’s attitudes, in sum all social behaviour either directly or indirectly is tied to communication and it is only reasonable therefore that we spend some time studying it. 2. Understand ourselves as people. There is also the need to study communication it help us know ourselves better, it points out and therefore brings to our attention some of the possible reasons we hold some of our own positive or negative attitude towards a given topic or issue or person. It help us to understand that we hold our favourite attitude to satisfy certain inner or psychological need and it points out that individual have a need for consistence, balance, and inner harmony inside their attitude. The study of communication equally helps us understand how our negative and oral conversation CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 6 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 and negative and positive activities. It may give us insights into the effects of our communication on others, it helps us become aware of positive motives, purposes and goals of others in their communication with us. 1.3.3 FRAMEWORK OF COMMUNICATION Communication as a one-way action. This framework suggest that communication is a kind of one way traffic with messages transmitted in one direction from one person to another. Basically this approach to communication as an individual one way action holds that a “source originates a message and that message ends hopefully in the mind of the reader. The one-way action framework or orientation communication holds the conclusion that if there is some breakdown the fault is that of the source. 1.3.4 COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION In contrast to one-way framework. This view holds that communication is string of course and reaction e.g. a person speaks again to one person, sends some information to another and immediately receives something back, interactions is thought of as a two-way, each communication with an on and off switch. Each sending and receiving. This framework is an improvement over the first one because the nature of feedback is added. Nevertheless this framework seeks to account for the possibility that people can send and receive at the sometime. Communication as transaction: this framework looks at the act of communicating as a dynamic interchange between communicators with no period of passive receptively on the communicator. Each communicator is always both sending and receiving at the sometime. This framework of communication, perceive communication as interrelated and that we can consider one of them without considering the other or others. This approach posits that all elements in the communication process are interrelated and interdependent. There are four components of communication as transaction: a. Communication is systemic: communication involves the systemic relationship of elements e.g. the way we communicate in this class cannot be treated in isolation with the relationship you have with your family, your past experiences in other classes or the goals you have in your mind for yourself. The temperature in one’s room, the clothes, the night you spend before a class, these are all interdependent element in the communication system. In communication two basic systems operates: - element inside the individual, the internal system, and element outside the individual the external system. The internal elements consist of generally of pre-conceive attitude and personal traits, motives, knowledge, intelligent and past experience, behold CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 7 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION b. c. d. UNIT: 3 inner psychological and intellectual complex of the individual these elements are called private or internal stimuli. The external system is composed of those elements that exist in the environment outside the individual. These elements include such element as particular use in a message, the physical gestures of the communicators even the temperature in the room. These elements are the public or external stimuli of the communication transaction. communication is perceptual an understanding of the process perceives is fundamental to an understanding of communication. Generally speaking, perception is the process in which the person selects stimuli (or information) from the external world and at the same time mixes and blends them with internal stimuli which are within him. Perception is the individual blending of internal and external stimuli. Communication is creating meaning when people perceive (blend internal and external elements). They are engage in the creation of meaning. In the transactional approach the creation of meaning is an essential component of human creation. The individual meaning each person assign to a stimuli is base on his own unique perceptual blending of the internal and external stimuli. Communication is processual a well establish assumption that communication behaviour emphasize by most writers in the area is the idea that communication is a process, the term process describes the ongoing flowing, ever changing nature of human communication. Communication has no discernible beginning, has no ending and is continuously moving forward. 1.4 SUMMARY Communication is the basis in which man establishes a relationship with himself and things around him. We study communication to understand ourselves as social beings and also as people communication helps in providing information, transmission of culture and the correlation of environment amongst other functions 1.5 1.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. What is communication? 2. Why study communication discuss? 3. Briefly explain what you understand communication? by frameworks of REFERENCES Wilson, D. (2006). Fundamentals of Human Communication. Ibadan: Stirling – Horden Publishers, Nigeria Ltd. McQuail, D. (2006). McQuail’s Theories of Mass Communication. London Sage publications CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 8 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 1.7 UNIT: 3 SUGGESTED READINGS Wilson, D. (2006). Fundamentals of Human Communication. Ibadan: StirlingHorden Publishers McQuail, D. (2006). McQuail’s Theories of Mass Communication. London Sage Publications. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 9 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC 2: TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 2.0 TOPIC: CONTEXTS/LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION - 8 2.1 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 9 2.2 OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - - 9 2.3 IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 9 2.3.1. CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION - - - 9 2.3.2. GROUP CONTEXT - - - - - 10 2.3.3. ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT - - - 10 2.3.4 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION - - - 11 2.3.5 VERBAL - 2.3.6 NON-VERBAL - - - - - - - 11 - - - - - - 13 - - 13 2.3.7 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION 2.4 SUMMARY - - - - - - - 13 2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - 14 2.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 14 2.7 SUGGESTED READING - - - - - - 14 - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 10 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 2.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 3 CONTEXTS/LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION 2.1 INTRODUCTION In this topic the contexts and levels of communication will be discussed. Thus, we would start by examining the context of communication such as it is systemic, perceptual, creating meaning and processual. We will also look at levels of communication such as intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and organizational communication. 2.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic students will be able to; i. Identify the contexts of communication ii. The differences between these contexts of communication. iii. Identify the levels of communication. iv. Discuss the functions of communication 2.3 IN-TEXT 2.3.1 CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION Central to every communication act is the creation of meaning a communication takes place there are many context or levels of communication but usually stand out. These are intra-personal, group, organizational and mass communication. We will describe, typical characteristics of these context the process of communication meaning essentially the same. Contexts do not change the basic nature of communication. common to any context is still the creation of meaning. 1. Intra-personal context: this is the most basic and common of all communicating experience, in this context communication takes place when we communicate with ourselves. Since people must first create meaning to share meaning with others. We say it is the most basic form of communication even as we communicate with other we are simultaneously communicating with and within ourselves. It is also the most common because it goes on with us, continuously, regardless of the presence or absence of other people. We spend more time with ourselves than in any other human being. The environment of intra-personal communication can be as varied as the number and type of places in which you find yourselves in your bed, bathroom in the classroom, public transport, on the work way etc. whenever we think, we are not “just thinking” we are actually communicating. Intra-personal communication is the individual’s perceptual blending of stimuli and his ongoing assignment of meanings. It is a deeply personal experience; feedback in this context is immediate. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 11 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 2. Inter-personal context: Here people attempt to share meaning, we can say that anytime at least two individuals engage in face to face conversation, we find some type of inter –personal communication several major characteristics of this context distinguished it from others. First communication in this context (setting) requires at least two individuals who must recognize and acknowledge the presence of one another. They must be aware of each other they must perceive each other. The most obvious example is when two people are engage in intimate conversation and self disclosure. The point is the two people are necessary and even more important than that they must take each other into account. A second general characteristic requirement with certain exceptions, that the people be close enough physically to make transaction possible, often is face to face experience. Thirdly, communication transactions in inter –personal requires little structure or planning. The person communicates freely and spontaneously even with frequent pauses or discontinuities. The participant may typically deal with a wide range of topics; one may introduce a new topic, suggested or beggared by an internal cut or by an internal cue. Feed back is often immediate in this context too. 2.3.2 GROUP CONTEXT Everyone is a member of one group or the other; classes, a family, a sorority, a political group, are just a few example of group communication context. All the characteristics identified in the interpersonal context can be applied to the group context with 3 new characteristics. First any group has a set of norms, standards of behaviors members of a group are expected to act according to these norm or they are soon alienated from the group. These rules are of less written down, but they can also be unwritten and be considered as a tradition. A second characteristic is the groups enduring nature, a group is establish for a period of time, it is a planned and lasting collection of people communicating in the group context is affected by the enduring nature of the group and its task. The final characteristic of the group context concerns the expectations that members have of the part each is to play. This shared expectation of members’ behaviour and termed roles and strongly influence each person’s communication in the group, communicating in the group context is affected by a person’s role characteristics. 2.3.3 ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT Organizational communication contains all those characteristics found in the other context, what are the distinguishing characteristics of organizational setting. First, organizations are concern with the co-ordination of a number of interrelated group activities. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 12 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 A second characteristic of organizational context is the pattern of predictable activities that take place within it. In other words certain units are expected to perform consistent and predictable task. Thirdly, is the generally outline or structure of authority and responsibility of the organization. The general outline of authority may vary from one organization to another; it may be centralized or decentralized as the case may be. 2.3.4 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION Verbal cues: verbal cues are the words we use whether spoken or written; the first thing to note is that words are symbols. A symbol is something standing for or taking the place of something else it is an object, behaviour, or a feeling. It is important that we note two points about words or symbols. 1. The word is only a reproduction of a thing and not the thing itself. 2. Words mean different things to different people. With regard to the first point, it means we often react to word rather than the symbols of the words. With regard to the point it is necessary for us to understand two related ideas i. No necessary connection exists between a word and what it represents. We could rename ‘television’ and called it ‘chair’ as long as we agree. ii. The term television is an arbitrary naming. We gradually learn the specific meaning of words in our particular language. 2.3.5 VERBAL Non verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or written; they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to effects of the physical setting. They are basically four categories of non verbal communication. These are: Body motion Characteristics of appearance Characteristics of voice Use of space and distancing All forms of body movement are included here, typical body motions or kinesics behaviour are facial responses including eye and eye brow behaviour, posture, movement of the torso, hands, head, feet’s, legs and an infinite range of gestures. Groups under facial responses are such expressions as smiling, amazement, disgust etc. observations of eye behaviour may include: who people look at, how long they look, whether the look is returned and for how long, adverse dilation of the pupils. People exhibit postures that are relaxed or uncomfortable, authoritative or submissive. For example, body movement may include: the way a flirting woman moves her body when she establish eye contact with an attractive young man, the CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 13 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 shaky knees of an inexperience speaker, the shrouding of the shoulders, shaking of the head and furred brow of the student who can’t answer a question. Characteristics of behaviour: the physical appearance of a person communicates a lot and also affects communication. All other things being equal, it is assume that good looking women and men are somewhat better off than their plainer friends in their relationships with the opposite sex. What physical characteristics do we often notice about people. We look at hair style is the hair wavy, wild, dreadlock, skintight? Are the eyebrows thick or thin? Is the nose straight or looked; narrow or broad, are the lips thick or thin, are the ears big or small. We should also include width, moustaches, lipsticks, pimples, eye make and glasses. Appearance is more than superficial because we associate certain personality’s intellectuals and moral traits, individuals possessing certain physical characteristics. Characteristics of voice: what are the basic qualities of a person’s voice, is it high or low, deep or thin, smooth or raspy, loud or soft, in addition to a person’s vocal qualities, the control an individual have over his voice is work studying, what kind of speech variation does he exhibit? What variation in tempo of speech does he exhibit? Does he use his voice to emphasize his meaning? We often associate certain personality intellectual and moral trait with vocal characteristics e.g. in films we find that heroes, have rich, deep resonance voices and that villains have harsh strident and cold voices. Use of space and distancing: the term territoriality is used to express the tendency we all have to claim a personal space or territory that is ours alone, that we do not wish others to intrude upon some people require larger personal space than others; the invasion of personal space without invitation produces negative attitude on the part of the person intruded upon. The distance people place between them when they work or talk is included in this sub-category: - in general, close distance between communicators indicate that they have positive attitude towards one another as long as we agree. The term television is an arbitrary naming. We gradually learn the specific meaning of words in our particular language. The fact that the meanings of words are in practice agreed upon by tradition and consensus does not mean that everyone agrees or has to agree to a particular meaning the fact that the same word can have several seemingly unrelated meanings can create unintended and involuntary disagreement. People only transmit words, they don’t transmit meaning. a. Words frequently mean different things to different people because they are obstructions, a single word is very limited, it doesn’t completely or include full details about an object, an idea, an experience or anything else for that matter. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 14 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 In addition words mean different things to different people through differences in denotative and connotative meanings. Denotative meaning is the generally agreed upon meaning. While connotative meaning is specific and inform by people’s experiences. Denotative, we agree on the meanings of words but connotatively we differ. The fact that the meanings of words are in practice agreed upon by tradition and consensus does not mean that everyone agrees or has to agree to a particular meaning. The fact that one word can have several seemingly unrelated meanings can create unintended and involuntary disagreements. People only transmit words, they don’t transmit meanings. b. Words frequently mean different things to different people because they are obstructions, a single word is very limited, it doesn’t completely or include full details about an object, an idea, an experience or anything else for that matter. In addition words mean different things to different people through differences in denotative and connotative meanings. Denotative meaning is the general agreed upon meanings, while connotative meaning is one that is specific and informs by people’s experiences. Denotatively we agree on the meanings of words but connotatively we often differ. 2.3.6 NON VERBAL Non verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or written; they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to effects of the physical setting. They are basically four categories of non verbal communication. These are: assume that good looking women and men are some what better off that they are planner friends in their relationships with the opposite sex. What physical characteristics do we often notice about people we look at hairstyle is the hair wavy, wild, dreadlock, skintight? Are the eyebrows thick or thin? Is the nose straight or looked, narrow or open, are the lips thick or thin, are the ears big or small, we should also include width, moustaches, lipsticks, pimples, eye make and glasses. Appearance is more than superficial because we associate certain personalities, intellectuals and moral traits, individuals possessing certain physical characteristics. - Characteristics of voice: what are the basic qualities of a person’s voice is it high or low, deep or thin, smooth or raspy, loud or soft, in addition to a person’s vocal qualities the control an individual have over his voice is worth studying, what kind of speech variation does he exhibit? What variation in tempo of speech does he exhibit? Does he use voice? 2.3.7 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION 1. Exchange of feelings 2. Sending and receiving message 3. Entertainment 4. Education CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 15 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 5. 6. 7. 8. Information Surveillance – Security Check-Up Transmission of culture/social heritage Correlation (To be informed of something where to get and how to get it or how locate the place. 2.4 SUMMARY Central to every communication act is the creation of meaning, communication takes place, and there are many contexts or levels of communication which usually stand out. These are intra-personal, inter-personal, group organizational and mass communication while levels of communication on the other includes verbal and non verbal. Verbal cues are words we use whether spoken or written. While non verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or written, the range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to the effects of physical setting. 2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. What do you understand by contexts of communication? 2. Mention the five context of communication and discuss them. 3. What is level of communication? 4. Distinguish between verbal cues and non verbal cues. 2.6 REFERENCES Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepaks: Clark Publishing Inc. Defleur ML & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd. 2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepaks: Clark Publishing Inc. Defleur ML & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 16 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri UNIT: 3 17 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 3.0. TOPIC: POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION - 15 3.1. INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 16 3.2. OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 16 3.3. IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 16 3.3.1. POSTULATE/AXIOMS OF COMMUNICATION - 16 3.4. SUMMARY - 3.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3.6. REFERENCES - 3.7 SUGGESTED READING - - - - - - - - - - 17 - - - - 18 - - - - - 18 - - - - - 18 CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 18 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 3.0. TOPIC: UNIT: 3 POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION 3.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing the postulates of communication, the axioms of communication. 3.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, you should be able to: i. Understand the postulates of communication ii. Explain the axioms of communication 3.3. IN –TEXT 3.3.1 POSTULATES/AXIOMS OF COMMUNICATION You cannot not communicate Communication is Meta-communication Interaction punctuates common sequence. Communication is both digital and diagonal Communication expresses and differentiates between symmetrical and complementary interaction. Postulates of communication are basic assumptions made about communication this postulates, are also referred to as assumption of communication through statements or well known saying. Communication helps to define and maintain relationship between and among interactions. This relationship or interactions are governed by sets of rules, which are obeyed by interractants. Participants in the relationship define the nature of the relationship through communication. The most well known and often quoted, postulates about communication are made by Watziawick, Beavin and Jackson in their Book Pragmatics of Communication. The authors presented five axioms about communication. These are: You cannot not communicate: This axiom is important because it emphasized that the very attempt to avoid interaction is itself a kind of interaction. It also emphasizes, that any perceivable behaviour is potentially communicative. Thus we are always communicating whether we like it or not, keeping, quite itself communicate something, fear hunger, disapproval boredom. Perhaps we only stop communicating when we die, even then we are no longer alive and we should be burned if our decomposing bodies are to smell. The second axiom seeks to explain that every communication has a content and relationship aspect, such that the later classify the former and is therefore meta communication, when two people are talking to each other CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 19 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 relating information, simultaneously each person is also commenting upon the information at higher level. This simultaneous relationship talk (which is often not verbal) is what is mean by meta-communication. Example a teacher may tell a student at a certain level that there will be a test tomorrow. There are many possible meta-messages that may be making the following impression: - I am the authority in this classroom. I teach, you learn, I need feedback on your progress; I want you to think I am fulfilling my work as a professor. The third axiom seeks to explain that interaction sequences like word sequences cannot be understood as a string of isolated elements. The behaviour of an individual normally brings out the reaction in others and might have been a reaction to other people. These reactions serve as chairs linking the act of communication among individuals. For instances, a hostile person may perceive the person he is hostile to, as the one being hostile to him, which will in turn make the other person to also behave with hostility towards him because of a similar perception. That initial behaviour of hostility by the first person could be due to an earlier experience with the first person, which the first person could not have been aware of. The fourth axiom attempts to describe the two types of coding used in interpersonal communication, digital codes are not very easy to understand, because they are arbitrary; digital codes are also discreet i.e. they are uttered, said or not said, verbalize or not verbalized. The most common digital code in human communication is language, sounds, words and phases arranged synthetically to communicate meanings. The arbitrary nature of digital code is because, it is used to represent ‘something’ without actually being related to ‘something’ the relationship between the sign and the referred something is only attributed or imputed. The relationship that exists is only imagination. An arbitrary code is not analogy by a sequential representation in the form of appearance of the object it reproduces. For example a photograph of Yar Adua is his picture thus an analogic code. An analogue is often continuous rather than discreet. It has a degree of intensity or longetivity. For example a facial expression of surprise is not only a sign of a feeling or condition, but it is actually part of the surprise. Its meaning is intrinsic. While the digital and analogic are quite different from one another, they are used together and cannot be separated in actual on-going communication for example a word (digital) can be uttered in a variety of paralinguistic ways. (Loud, soft, high or low). The manner of utterance is analogic. The final axiom refers to the relationship between attractants, a symmetrical relationship is said to exists, when two communicators in a relationship behave in much the same way. Differences are minimized. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 20 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 3.4 SUMMARY Postulates of communication are the basic assumptions made about communication. The postulates are also referred to as assumption of communication through statements or well known saying. The most well known and often quoted, postulates about communication are made by Watziawick, Beavin and Jackson in their book pragmatics of communication. The authors presented five axioms about communication. 3.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES. 1. Explain the term postulates of communication 2. Mention and explain the five axioms of communication 3.6 REFERENCES Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepa kS: Clark Publishing Inc. Defleur M.L & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd. 3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS Payre, J. (1999) Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts. Tokepa kS: Clark Publishing Inc. Defleur M.L & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 21 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 4.0. TOPIC: BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION- 19 4.1. INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 20 4.2. OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 20 4.3. IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 20 - 4.3.1. WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION? - - - - - 20 4.4. SUMMARY - - - - - - - - 20 4.5. REFERENCES - - - - - - - 21 4.6. SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 21 CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 22 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 4.0 TOPIC: UNIT: 3 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 4.1. INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing the barriers to effective communication 4.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, you shall be able to: i. understand the barriers to effective communication ii. discuss the barriers to effective communication 4.3. IN-TEXT 4.3.1. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Ambiguity: - the message conveyed should not be ambiguous, it should be as clear as possible so that the recipient can understand without any doubt, what the message is all about. Language: - the language used in conveying the message should not be difficult to understand. If difficult and complex language is used in conveying any message the recipient may end up not understanding the message. Objectivity: - the sender should try to be as objective as possible whenever conveying a message: the recipient may not have the interest of listeners or read about a message that is not objectively conveyed. The sender should understand and have knowledge of what he wants to say. If he does not understand and have the knowledge of the message he will convey, he may end up confusing the recipient. Argumentative message often confused the recipient. When arguments are used in conveying messages, the recipient may end up getting the wrong thing. The use of negative ideas also affects the easy flow of communication. If negative ideas are used, the recipient more often than not gets less interest in the message to be conveyed. The used of harsh words also affect the flow of effective communication when harsh words are used, the recipient easily can get annoyed, hence will not understand the message that is conveyed to him. 4.4. SUMMARY The barriers to effective communication affect the process of communication in any given society. These barriers are ambiguity, language, objectivity, use of harsh CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 23 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 words, use of negative ideas and argumentative message that often confuse the recipient. 4.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Explain briefly what you understand by the concept barriers to effective communication 2. Discuss the barriers to effective communication 4.6. REFERENCES McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage Publication. Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication USA: The McGraw –Hill Companies. 4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage Publication. Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication USA: Mc Graw -Inc CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 24 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES 5.0. TOPIC: 5.1. MODELS - - - - - - 22 INTRODUCTION - - - - - - - 23 5.2. OBJECTIVES - - - - - - - 23 5.3. IN-TEXT - - - - - - - 23 5.3.1. WHAT IS A MODEL - - - - - 23 5.3.2. NEW COMB’S SYMMETRY MODEL - - - 24 5.3.3. DANCE’S HELICAL SPIRAL - - - - 25 5.3.4 DAVID BERLO’S MODEL - - - - 26 5.4. SUMMARY - - - - - - 26 5.5. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE - - - - - 26 5.6 REFERENCES - - - - - - 26 5.7. SUGGESTED READINGS - - - - - 26 - - - - CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 25 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 5.0. TOPIC: UNIT: 3 MODELS 5.1. INTRODUCTION In this unit, we shall be discussing models and the different models of communication 5.2. OBJECTIVES At the end of this topic, you should be able to: i. Define and explain models ii. Explain models of communication iii. Discuss the different models of communication 5.3 IN-TEXT 5.3.1. WHAT IS A MODEL? The term model can apply to the symbolic presentation of a thing, a process or idea. We can thus encounter models of the human figure, trains and planes. A model that represents ideas and process may be graphic, verbal or mathematical. A model is usually viewed as an analogy to some real world phenomenon. Thus, models are interpreted metaphorically, so that the model attempts to draw symbolic parallel between structures and relationships in the model in the modeled events or process. A common model then is a symbolic representation of the process of communication in a graphic verbal or mathematical form. The aim of any communication model is to help us understand how communication work by identifying the symbolic elements involved in communication. We should equally understand that no one model can claim to have exhaustively identified and described all that is involved in the communication process. At best any one model can only successfully explain or describe certain aspect of the process of communication as have arrested the attention and interest of the model builders. Thus in communication we have different models paying different attention to aspects of the process of communication. For example models that pays attention to interpersonal communication, public communication, political communication, traditional communication and mass communication. Lass well model of communication (psycho sociological model) Harold D. Lass well (1948) attempts to explain the essential element that constitute a communication process. According to him, one cannot suitably describe a communication action without answering the following questions; who says what, to whom, in what channel and with what effect. He identified the following as areas of communication, that is to say the component Communication component Research CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 26 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 Who says what ………………………………. content analysis In what channel ……………………………… media analysis To whom ……………………………………… audience analysis With what effect………………………………. effect analysis When we study communication, we have to identify transmitters (of the messages) the who aspect by looking into the factors that initiate and guide the act of communication when we look at the content analysis, we focus on the said word aspect by looking at the transmission channels (radio, press, TV etc) this is called media experience refers to things that help make communication effective, that is to say a situation where the source and a receiver are known to have common experience and communicate on that basis. Field of experience ranges from religion, education sex, custom etc. 5.3.2 NEW COMB’S SYMMETRY MODEL Objects of orientation X B A i. ii. iii. iv. Attitudes of A towards B Attitudes of A Attitudes B Attitudes of B X A X Theodore Newcomb’s approach to communication is like a psychologist concern with interaction between human beings. The above diagram of group networks made by social psychologists and is one of the early formulations of cognitive consistency. In its simplest form, a person A, transmits information to another person B, about something X. the model assumes that A’s orientation (attitude) toward B and toward X are interdependent, and the 3 constitute a system compromising 4 orientations. i. A’s orientation towards X, including both attitude toward X as an object to be approached or to be avoided and cognitive attribute (beliefs, cognitive structuring) ii. A’s orientation towards B, including both attitude towards A as an object to be approach or avoided this can be negative or positive. iii. B’s orientation towards X. iv. B’s orientation towards A. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 27 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 In this model, Newcomb posits that communication is the common and effective way by which individual orientation to their environment. It is a model for intentional, two person communicative act. Newcomb derives the following postulates from his model. The stronger A’s orientation towards B and X the greater the symmetry in the relationship of A with B toward X. The less the attraction between A and B the more likely of the symmetry towards X’s orientation. This model tries to explain that we have social and psychological attitude for the orientation we have. When people we hold in high esteem share our evaluations of events and ideas, we tend to be more confident of our orientation. It therefore followed that we communicate individuals we hold in esteem about objects, events, people and ideas (Xs) that are important to us, to try to reach consensus reorientation (symmetry). 5.3.3. DANCE’S HELICAL SPIRAL No clear beginning No clear ending According to Frank dance communication has no clear observable beginning and no clear observable ending. The spiral continuous indefinitely. Dance’s contended that no transaction may be said to have a fixed boundary, each transaction is a part of previous communication and each transaction in turn influences the future of communication. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 28 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 5.3.4. UNIT: 3 DAVID BERLO’S MODEL Source communication skills Attitudes Knowledge Social system Culture Message Elements Structure Content Treatment Code Channel Seeing Hearing Touching Smelling Tasting Receiver Communication skill Attitudes Knowledge Social system Culture This model attempts to explain, the various components in the communication process. The four basic components are: the source, message channel and receiver, for each of these, there are five elements that need to be considered. The source and the receiver are treated essentially the same way, in order to study either of the two we need to know about their communication skills. Thus, speaking and writing for the source and listening and reading for the receiver, their attitudes, their knowledge, the social system which they are part of and their culture. The message consist of both elements and structure which may be broken down into content, treatment and code for the channel, Berlo list 5 senses emphasizing that messages may be sent and receive through any or all of the 5 senses. 5.4. SUMMARY The aim of any communication model is to help us understand how communication work by identifying the symbolic elements involved in communication. We should equally understand that no one model can claim to have exhaustively identified and described all that is involved in the communication process. 5.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1. Define a model 2. Explain the model of communication 3. Discuss the different models of communication 5.6. REFERENCES Folarin B. (1998) Theories of Mass Communication. An Introductory Text. Ibadan Stirling-Horden Publishers Nigeria Ltd. McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage Publication. 5.7 SUGGESTED READINGS CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 29 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 Folarin B. (1998) Theories of Mass Communication. An Introductory Text. Ibadan Stirling-Horden Publishers Nigeria Ltd. McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage Publication. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 30 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 SOLUTION TO EXERCISES TOPIC 1 1. Communication process involves the passing of messages through the use of symbols which all parties in the communication encounter understand. It involves the exchange of ideas opinions attitudes beliefs between people. 2. i. ii 3. to understand ourselves as social beings. Communication is significant social experiences which occur in relationships, through communication we get to know others, others get to us, we make acquaintances, friend’s lovers all through communication, and we create and destroy relationships through communication. to understand ourselves as people. There is also the need to study communication it helps us know ourselves better, it point out and therefore brings to our attention some of the possible reasons we hold our own positive or negative attitude to satisfy certain inner or psychological need and point out individual need for consistency. Framework of communication, this suggest that communication is a kind of one way traffic with messages transmitted in one direction from one person to another. i. Communication as interaction this view holds that communication is a string of course and reaction. ii Communication as transaction: this framework looks at the act of communicating as a dynamic interchange between communicators with no period of passive receptivity on the communicator. iii. Communication as perception is the process in which the person selects stimuli (or information) from the external world and at the same time mixes and blends them with internal stimuli which are within him. iv. Communication is creating meaning. When people blend internal and external stimuli they are engage in the creation of meaning. v Communication is processual: this holds that communication as a process holds that communication has no discernable beginning and no discernible end. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 31 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TOPIC: 2 1. Communication contexts holds that central to every communication act is the creation of meaning .There are many contexts of communication which usually stand out. These are intra-personal, inter-personal, group, organizational and Mass Communication. i. Intra-personal context: this is the most basic and common of all communication experience. In this context communication takes place when we communicate with ourselves. ii. Inter-personal context: here people attempt to share meaning; we can say that anytime at least two individuals engage in face to face conversation, we find some type of inter-personal communication. iii. Group context: everyone is a member of one group or the other; a class, a family, sorority, a political group, are just a few example of group communication context. iv. Organizational communication contains all those characteristics found in the other context. Organizations are concern with the coordination of a number of interrelated group activities. 2. Verbal cues; verbal cues are the words we use whether spoken or written; the first thing to note is that words are symbols. A symbol is something standing for or taking the place of something else it is an object, behaviour, or a feeling. 3. Non Verbal cues: are those portions of communication other than spoken or written, they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to affect setting. TOPIC: 3 1. Postulates of communication are the basic assumptions made about communication. The postulates are also referred to as assumption of communication through statements or well known saying. The following are the postulates of five axioms of communication they includes; you cannot not communicate, communication is metacommunication, interaction punctuate common sequence, communication is both digital and diagonal, communication express and differentiate between symmetrical and complementary interaction. You cannot not, communicate: this axiom is important, because it emphasized that the very attempt to avoid interactions itself a kind of interaction. Thus we are always communicating whether we like it or not. The second axiom seeks to explain that every communication has a content and relationship aspect, such that the later classify the former and is therefore meta-communication, when two people are talking to each other relating CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 32 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 information, simultaneously each is also commenting upon the information at higher level. The third axiom seeks to explain that the interaction sequences like word sequences cannot be understood as a string of isolated elements. The behaviour of an individual normally brings out the reaction in others and might have been a reaction to other people. The fourth axiom attempts to describe the two types of coding used in interpersonal communication digital codes are not very easy to understand, because they are arbitrary, digital codes are also discreet. The final axiom refers to the relationship between attractants, a symmetrical relationship is said to exisits, when two communicators in a relationship behave in much the same way. TOPIC: 4 1. Barrier to effective communication is those impediments to communication. 2. Ambiguity: the message conveyed should not be ambiguous; it should be as clear as possible so that the recipient can understand without doubt, what the message is all about. Language: the language used in conveying the message should not be difficult to understand. Objective: the sender should try to be as objective as possible whenever conveying a message. The sender should understand and have knowledge of what he wants to say. Argumentative message often confused the recipient and should therefore be avoided. The use of negative ideas also affects the easy flow of communication The use of harsh words also affects the flow of effective communication when harsh words are used. TOPIC: 5 1. Models can apply to the symbolic presentation of a thing, a process or idea. We can thus encounter models of the human figure, trains and planes. A model that represents ideas and process may be graphic, verbal or mathematical. A common model then is the symbolic representation of he process of communication in a graphic verbal or mathematical form. 2. Communication model explain the communication process. 3. Lass well model of communication (psycho sociological model) Harold D. Lass well (1948) attempts to explain the essential element that constitute a CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 33 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION 4. 5. UNIT: 3 communication process. According to him, one cannot suitably describe a communication action without answering the following questions; who says what, to whom, in what channel and with what effect. Newcomb’s approach posits that the communication is the common and effective way by which individual orientate to their environment. It is a model of intentional, two persons perhaps communicative act. Dance’s Helical Spiral: This model posits that communication has no clear observable beginning and no clear observable ending. The spiral continues indefinitely. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 34 MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION UNIT: 3 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS: Attempt any three questions only TIME ALLOWED: 2:15 minutes 1. What is communication? Critically examine why the study of communication is necessary in a given society. 2. Identify and discuss the framework of communication. 3. Mention and explain the five contexts of communication. 4. Distinguish between verbal cues and non verbal cues 5. Briefly discuss the barriers to effective communication. CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri 35