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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE
LEARNING
ARTS
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
MCM 100:
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Published
UNIT: 3
2008©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in
any form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior
permission in writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate,
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
P R E F A C E
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can
do most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit
is different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers
have made efforts to make the study material rich enough but
learners need to do some extra reading for further enrichment of
the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities
and where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to
guide the selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course
writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no
doubt help in improving access to University education.
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
Professor M. M. Daura
Ag Vice-Chancellor
v
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify
your
study.
In
each
topic
of
the
unit,
we
have
introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment
exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will
be available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center
expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read
further you could supplement the study with more information
from the list of references and suggested readings available in the
study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can
help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and
understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the
end of the study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the
center. You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In
addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination,
which will be added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
vii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
The course is divided into five topics. Each topic is also divided into subtopics. Topic I defines communication and why we study communication. Topic 2;
contexts and levels Topic 3; Looks at postulates of communication. Topic 4;
examines the barriers to effective communication. Topic 5 looks at model as a
concept and communication models.
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
MCM 100:
UNIT: 3
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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PREFACE -
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INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
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TOPIC:
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POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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MODELS OF COMMUNICATION -
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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TOPIC 1:
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WHAT IS COMMUNICATION
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1.3.4. COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION
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SUMMARY -
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
COMMUNICATION
1.1
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing what communication is, why study
communication and the framework of communication.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
i.
Explain what communication is and why you should study it.
ii.
Explain the framework of communication
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Man is a communication animal. His life depends on it. Without
communication man would live a purposeless life. In fact he would be a lifeless being
unable to relate with himself and things in his environment.
Communication is the basis in which man establishes a relationship with
himself and things in his environment. It is the current which runs through all human
history. We use it to reduce uncertainty in a vast and challenging world.
Communication is the engine that empowers every human activity. Through it, we
exchange symbols, establish relationships, banish fear and “blast off the barriers to
oneness and understanding” (Wilson, 1997).
Akpan (1987) affirms the centralness of communication in human affairs
saying: “without communication we cease to exist as social creatures because
communication is a social affair”.
Other definitions by scholars includes the following:

Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred
from one person to another (R. Chappell & W. L. Read 1984).

Communication is the process by which one person (or a
group) shares and imparts information to another (or group)
and clearly understands one another (Rita Udall & shale Udall,
1979:5).

Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the
giving of understandable information and receiving
understandable messages by another party so that it can be
understood and acted upon (E.C. Eyre, 1983).

The communication process involves all acts of transmitting
message to channels which link people, to the languages and
symbolic codes which are used to transmit messages, the means
by which messages are received and stored, and the rules,
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

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UNIT: 3
customs and conventions which define and regulate human
relationships and events. (Frank O. Ugboajah, 1985).
Communication is the process involving the passing of
messages through the use of symbols which all parties in the
communication encounter understand. It involves the exchange
of ideas opinions attitudes and beliefs between people (Sybill,
James, Isaac Ode and Oludayo Soola 1990).
Communication is a continuous, irreversible transitive process
involving communicators who occupy different but over
lapping environment and are simultaneously senders and
receivers of message many of which are distorted by physical
and psychological noise (CRB Alder and N. Towne, 1990).
1.3.2
WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION?
The study of communication is to enable us:
1.
To understand ourselves as social beings
2.
To understand ourselves as people.
1.3.2.1
WHY STUDY COMMUNICATION?
We can come up with probably a thousand and one reason why we study
communication for example to communicate more effectively, to understand the
barriers to effective communication etc. However we can subsume all these reasons
into two.
1.
To understand ourselves as social beings. Communication is a significant
social experience which occurs in all our relationships, through
communication we get to know others, get others to know us, we make
acquaintances, friends, lovers all through communication we create and
destroy relationships through communication. Thus through the study of
communication, we can bring to our attention the various strategies we
may use in our own communication, to help us work better with others
and to make mutually beneficial compromises helpful for everyone
involved, we can also through the study of communication understand
people’s attitudes, in sum all social behaviour either directly or indirectly is
tied to communication and it is only reasonable therefore that we spend
some time studying it.
2.
Understand ourselves as people. There is also the need to study
communication it help us know ourselves better, it points out and
therefore brings to our attention some of the possible reasons we hold
some of our own positive or negative attitude towards a given topic or
issue or person.
It help us to understand that we hold our favourite attitude to satisfy certain
inner or psychological need and it points out that individual have a need for
consistence, balance, and inner harmony inside their attitude. The study of
communication equally helps us understand how our negative and oral conversation
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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and negative and positive activities. It may give us insights into the effects of our
communication on others, it helps us become aware of positive motives, purposes
and goals of others in their communication with us.
1.3.3 FRAMEWORK OF COMMUNICATION
Communication as a one-way action. This framework suggest that
communication is a kind of one way traffic with messages transmitted in one
direction from one person to another.
Basically this approach to communication as an individual one way action
holds that a “source originates a message and that message ends hopefully in the
mind of the reader. The one-way action framework or orientation communication
holds the conclusion that if there is some breakdown the fault is that of the source.
1.3.4 COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION
In contrast to one-way framework. This view holds that communication is
string of course and reaction e.g. a person speaks again to one person, sends some
information to another and immediately receives something back, interactions is
thought of as a two-way, each communication with an on and off switch. Each
sending and receiving. This framework is an improvement over the first one because
the nature of feedback is added. Nevertheless this framework seeks to account for the
possibility that people can send and receive at the sometime.
Communication as transaction: this framework looks at the act of
communicating as a dynamic interchange between communicators with no period of
passive receptively on the communicator. Each communicator is always both sending
and receiving at the sometime.
This framework of communication, perceive communication as interrelated
and that we can consider one of them without considering the other or others. This
approach posits that all elements in the communication process are interrelated and
interdependent.
There are four components of communication as transaction:
a.
Communication is systemic: communication involves the systemic relationship
of elements e.g. the way we communicate in this class cannot be treated in
isolation with the relationship you have with your family, your past
experiences in other classes or the goals you have in your mind for yourself.
The temperature in one’s room, the clothes, the night you spend before
a class, these are all interdependent element in the communication system.
In communication two basic systems operates: - element inside the
individual, the internal system, and element outside the individual the external
system.
The internal elements consist of generally of pre-conceive attitude and
personal traits, motives, knowledge, intelligent and past experience, behold
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
b.
c.
d.
UNIT: 3
inner psychological and intellectual complex of the individual these elements
are called private or internal stimuli.
The external system is composed of those elements that exist in the
environment outside the individual. These elements include such element as
particular use in a message, the physical gestures of the communicators even
the temperature in the room. These elements are the public or external stimuli
of the communication transaction.
communication is perceptual an understanding of the process perceives is
fundamental to an understanding of communication. Generally speaking,
perception is the process in which the person selects stimuli (or information)
from the external world and at the same time mixes and blends them with
internal stimuli which are within him. Perception is the individual blending of
internal and external stimuli.
Communication is creating meaning when people perceive (blend internal and
external elements). They are engage in the creation of meaning. In the
transactional approach the creation of meaning is an essential component of
human creation.
The individual meaning each person assign to a stimuli is base on his
own unique perceptual blending of the internal and external stimuli.
Communication is processual a well establish assumption that communication
behaviour emphasize by most writers in the area is the idea that
communication is a process, the term process describes the ongoing flowing,
ever changing nature of human communication. Communication has no
discernible beginning, has no ending and is continuously moving forward.
1.4
SUMMARY
Communication is the basis in which man establishes a relationship with
himself and things around him. We study communication to understand ourselves as
social beings and also as people communication helps in providing information,
transmission of culture and the correlation of environment amongst other functions
1.5
1.6
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
What is communication?
2.
Why study communication discuss?
3.
Briefly explain what you understand
communication?
by
frameworks
of
REFERENCES
Wilson, D. (2006). Fundamentals of Human Communication. Ibadan: Stirling –
Horden Publishers, Nigeria Ltd.
McQuail, D. (2006). McQuail’s Theories of Mass Communication.
London Sage publications
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.7
UNIT: 3
SUGGESTED READINGS
Wilson, D. (2006). Fundamentals of Human Communication. Ibadan: StirlingHorden Publishers
McQuail, D. (2006). McQuail’s Theories of Mass Communication. London Sage
Publications.
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TOPIC 2:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
CONTEXTS/LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
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2.3.3. ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
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2.3.4 LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
2.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
CONTEXTS/LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In this topic the contexts and levels of communication will be discussed.
Thus, we would start by examining the context of communication such as it is
systemic, perceptual, creating meaning and processual. We will also look at levels of
communication such as intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and organizational
communication.
2.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic students will be able to;
i.
Identify the contexts of communication
ii.
The differences between these contexts of communication.
iii.
Identify the levels of communication.
iv.
Discuss the functions of communication
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1
CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Central to every communication act is the creation of meaning a
communication takes place there are many context or levels of communication but
usually stand out. These are intra-personal, group, organizational and mass
communication.
We will describe, typical characteristics of these context the process of
communication meaning essentially the same. Contexts do not change the basic
nature of communication. common to any context is still the creation of meaning.
1.
Intra-personal context: this is the most basic and common of all
communicating experience, in this context communication takes place when
we communicate with ourselves. Since people must first create meaning to
share meaning with others. We say it is the most basic form of communication
even as we communicate with other we are simultaneously communicating
with and within ourselves. It is also the most common because it goes on with
us, continuously, regardless of the presence or absence of other people. We
spend more time with ourselves than in any other human being.
The environment of intra-personal communication can be as varied as the
number and type of places in which you find yourselves in your bed, bathroom in the
classroom, public transport, on the work way etc. whenever we think, we are not
“just thinking” we are actually communicating. Intra-personal communication is the
individual’s perceptual blending of stimuli and his ongoing assignment of meanings.
It is a deeply personal experience; feedback in this context is immediate.
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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2.
Inter-personal context: Here people attempt to share meaning, we can say that
anytime at least two individuals engage in face to face conversation, we find
some type of inter –personal communication several major characteristics of
this context distinguished it from others.
First communication in this context (setting) requires at least two individuals
who must recognize and acknowledge the presence of one another. They must be
aware of each other they must perceive each other. The most obvious example is
when two people are engage in intimate conversation and self disclosure. The point is
the two people are necessary and even more important than that they must take each
other into account.
A second general characteristic requirement with certain exceptions, that the
people be close enough physically to make transaction possible, often is face to face
experience.
Thirdly, communication transactions in inter –personal requires little structure
or planning. The person communicates freely and spontaneously even with frequent
pauses or discontinuities. The participant may typically deal with a wide range of
topics; one may introduce a new topic, suggested or beggared by an internal cut or by
an internal cue. Feed back is often immediate in this context too.
2.3.2 GROUP CONTEXT
Everyone is a member of one group or the other; classes, a family, a sorority, a
political group, are just a few example of group communication context. All the
characteristics identified in the interpersonal context can be applied to the group
context with 3 new characteristics.
First any group has a set of norms, standards of behaviors members of a
group are expected to act according to these norm or they are soon alienated from
the group. These rules are of less written down, but they can also be unwritten and be
considered as a tradition.
A second characteristic is the groups enduring nature, a group is establish for
a period of time, it is a planned and lasting collection of people communicating in the
group context is affected by the enduring nature of the group and its task.
The final characteristic of the group context concerns the expectations that
members have of the part each is to play. This shared expectation of members’
behaviour and termed roles and strongly influence each person’s communication in
the group, communicating in the group context is affected by a person’s role
characteristics.
2.3.3 ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT
Organizational communication contains all those characteristics found in the
other context, what are the distinguishing characteristics of organizational setting.
First, organizations are concern with the co-ordination of a number of
interrelated group activities.
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
A second characteristic of organizational context is the pattern of predictable
activities that take place within it. In other words certain units are expected to
perform consistent and predictable task.
Thirdly, is the generally outline or structure of authority and responsibility of
the organization. The general outline of authority may vary from one
organization to another; it may be centralized or decentralized as the case may
be.
2.3.4
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal cues: verbal cues are the words we use whether spoken or written; the
first thing to note is that words are symbols.
A symbol is something standing for or taking the place of something else it is
an object, behaviour, or a feeling. It is important that we note two points about
words or symbols.
1.
The word is only a reproduction of a thing and not the thing itself.
2.
Words mean different things to different people.
With regard to the first point, it means we often react to word rather than the
symbols of the words. With regard to the point it is necessary for us to understand
two related ideas
i.
No necessary connection exists between a word and what it represents. We
could rename ‘television’ and called it ‘chair’ as long as we agree.
ii.
The term television is an arbitrary naming. We gradually learn the specific
meaning of words in our particular language.
2.3.5 VERBAL
Non verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or
written; they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to effects
of the physical setting. They are basically four categories of non verbal
communication. These are:

Body motion

Characteristics of appearance

Characteristics of voice

Use of space and distancing
All forms of body movement are included here, typical body motions or
kinesics behaviour are facial responses including eye and eye brow behaviour,
posture, movement of the torso, hands, head, feet’s, legs and an infinite range of
gestures. Groups under facial responses are such expressions as smiling, amazement,
disgust etc. observations of eye behaviour may include: who people look at, how long
they look, whether the look is returned and for how long, adverse dilation of the
pupils. People exhibit postures that are relaxed or uncomfortable, authoritative or
submissive. For example, body movement may include: the way a flirting woman
moves her body when she establish eye contact with an attractive young man, the
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
shaky knees of an inexperience speaker, the shrouding of the shoulders, shaking of
the head and furred brow of the student who can’t answer a question.

Characteristics of behaviour: the physical appearance of a person
communicates a lot and also affects communication. All other things
being equal, it is assume that good looking women and men are
somewhat better off than their plainer friends in their relationships
with the opposite sex. What physical characteristics do we often notice
about people. We look at hair style is the hair wavy, wild, dreadlock,
skintight? Are the eyebrows thick or thin? Is the nose straight or
looked; narrow or broad, are the lips thick or thin, are the ears big or
small. We should also include width, moustaches, lipsticks, pimples, eye
make and glasses.
Appearance is more than superficial because we associate
certain personality’s intellectuals and moral traits, individuals
possessing certain physical characteristics.

Characteristics of voice: what are the basic qualities of a person’s
voice, is it high or low, deep or thin, smooth or raspy, loud or soft, in
addition to a person’s vocal qualities, the control an individual have
over his voice is work studying, what kind of speech variation does he
exhibit? What variation in tempo of speech does he exhibit? Does he
use his voice to emphasize his meaning? We often associate certain
personality intellectual and moral trait with vocal characteristics e.g. in
films we find that heroes, have rich, deep resonance voices and that
villains have harsh strident and cold voices.

Use of space and distancing: the term territoriality is used to express
the tendency we all have to claim a personal space or territory that is
ours alone, that we do not wish others to intrude upon some people
require larger personal space than others; the invasion of personal
space without invitation produces negative attitude on the part of the
person intruded upon.
The distance people place between them when they work or talk is included in
this sub-category: - in general, close distance between communicators indicate that
they have positive attitude towards one another as long as we agree. The term
television is an arbitrary naming. We gradually learn the specific meaning of words in
our particular language.
The fact that the meanings of words are in practice agreed upon by tradition
and consensus does not mean that everyone agrees or has to agree to a particular
meaning the fact that the same word can have several seemingly unrelated meanings
can create unintended and involuntary disagreement.
People only transmit words, they don’t transmit meaning.
a.
Words frequently mean different things to different people because they are
obstructions, a single word is very limited, it doesn’t completely or include full
details about an object, an idea, an experience or anything else for that matter.
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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In addition words mean different things to different people through
differences in denotative and connotative meanings.
Denotative meaning is the generally agreed upon meaning.
While connotative meaning is specific and inform by people’s experiences.
Denotative, we agree on the meanings of words but connotatively we differ.
The fact that the meanings of words are in practice agreed upon by
tradition and consensus does not mean that everyone agrees or has to agree to
a particular meaning. The fact that one word can have several seemingly
unrelated meanings can create unintended and involuntary disagreements.
People only transmit words, they don’t transmit meanings.
b.
Words frequently mean different things to different people because they are
obstructions, a single word is very limited, it doesn’t completely or include full
details about an object, an idea, an experience or anything else for that matter.
In addition words mean different things to different people through
differences in denotative and connotative meanings.
Denotative meaning is the general agreed upon meanings, while connotative
meaning is one that is specific and informs by people’s experiences. Denotatively we
agree on the meanings of words but connotatively we often differ.
2.3.6 NON VERBAL
Non verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or
written; they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to effects
of the physical setting. They are basically four categories of non verbal
communication. These are: assume that good looking women and men are some
what better off that they are planner friends in their relationships with the opposite
sex. What physical characteristics do we often notice about people we look at
hairstyle is the hair wavy, wild, dreadlock, skintight? Are the eyebrows thick or thin?
Is the nose straight or looked, narrow or open, are the lips thick or thin, are the ears
big or small, we should also include width, moustaches, lipsticks, pimples, eye make
and glasses.
Appearance is more than superficial because we associate certain personalities,
intellectuals and moral traits, individuals possessing certain physical characteristics.
- Characteristics of voice: what are the basic qualities of a person’s voice is it
high or low, deep or thin, smooth or raspy, loud or soft, in addition to a
person’s vocal qualities the control an individual have over his voice is worth
studying, what kind of speech variation does he exhibit? What variation in
tempo of speech does he exhibit? Does he use voice?
2.3.7 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1.
Exchange of feelings
2.
Sending and receiving message
3.
Entertainment
4.
Education
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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5.
6.
7.
8.
Information
Surveillance – Security Check-Up
Transmission of culture/social heritage
Correlation (To be informed of something where to get and how to get
it or how locate the place.
2.4 SUMMARY
Central to every communication act is the creation of meaning,
communication takes place, and there are many contexts or levels of communication
which usually stand out. These are intra-personal, inter-personal, group organizational
and mass communication while levels of communication on the other includes verbal
and non verbal. Verbal cues are words we use whether spoken or written. While non
verbal cues are those portions of communication other than spoken or written, the
range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to the effects of
physical setting.
2.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
What do you understand by contexts of communication?
2.
Mention the five context of communication and discuss them.
3.
What is level of communication?
4.
Distinguish between verbal cues and non verbal cues.
2.6
REFERENCES
Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepaks: Clark Publishing Inc.
Defleur ML & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White
Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd.
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepaks: Clark Publishing Inc.
Defleur ML & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication White
Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
UNIT: 3
17
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TOPIC 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
3.0.
TOPIC:
POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION
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15
3.1.
INTRODUCTION -
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3.2.
OBJECTIVES
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3.3.
IN-TEXT
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16
3.3.1. POSTULATE/AXIOMS OF COMMUNICATION
-
16
3.4.
SUMMARY -
3.5.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
3.6.
REFERENCES
-
3.7
SUGGESTED READING -
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
3.0. TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
POSTULATES OF COMMUNICATION
3.1
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the postulates of communication, the
axioms of communication.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Understand the postulates of communication
ii.
Explain the axioms of communication
3.3. IN –TEXT
3.3.1
POSTULATES/AXIOMS OF COMMUNICATION
You cannot not communicate
Communication is Meta-communication
Interaction punctuates common sequence.
Communication is both digital and diagonal
Communication expresses and differentiates between symmetrical and
complementary interaction.
Postulates of communication are basic assumptions made about
communication this postulates, are also referred to as assumption of communication
through statements or well known saying.
Communication helps to define and maintain relationship between and among
interactions. This relationship or interactions are governed by sets of rules, which are
obeyed by interractants. Participants in the relationship define the nature of the
relationship through communication.
The most well known and often quoted, postulates about communication are
made by Watziawick, Beavin and Jackson in their Book Pragmatics of
Communication. The authors presented five axioms about communication. These
are:
 You cannot not communicate: This axiom is important because it
emphasized that the very attempt to avoid interaction is itself a kind of
interaction. It also emphasizes, that any perceivable behaviour is potentially
communicative. Thus we are always communicating whether we like it or
not, keeping, quite itself communicate something, fear hunger, disapproval
boredom. Perhaps we only stop communicating when we die, even then we
are no longer alive and we should be burned if our decomposing bodies are
to smell.
 The second axiom seeks to explain that every communication has a
content and relationship aspect, such that the later classify the former and is
therefore meta communication, when two people are talking to each other
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
19
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
relating information, simultaneously each person is also commenting upon
the information at higher level. This simultaneous relationship talk (which is
often not verbal) is what is mean by meta-communication. Example a
teacher may tell a student at a certain level that there will be a test tomorrow.
There are many possible meta-messages that may be making the following
impression: - I am the authority in this classroom. I teach, you learn, I need
feedback on your progress; I want you to think I am fulfilling my work as a
professor.
 The third axiom seeks to explain that interaction sequences like word
sequences cannot be understood as a string of isolated elements. The
behaviour of an individual normally brings out the reaction in others and
might have been a reaction to other people. These reactions serve as chairs
linking the act of communication among individuals. For instances, a hostile
person may perceive the person he is hostile to, as the one being hostile to
him, which will in turn make the other person to also behave with hostility
towards him because of a similar perception.
That initial behaviour of hostility by the first person could be due to an
earlier experience with the first person, which the first person could not have
been aware of.
 The fourth axiom attempts to describe the two types of coding used in
interpersonal communication, digital codes are not very easy to understand,
because they are arbitrary; digital codes are also discreet i.e. they are uttered,
said or not said, verbalize or not verbalized.
The most common digital code in human communication is language,
sounds, words and phases arranged synthetically to communicate meanings.
The arbitrary nature of digital code is because, it is used to represent
‘something’ without actually being related to ‘something’ the relationship
between the sign and the referred something is only attributed or imputed.
The relationship that exists is only imagination.
An arbitrary code is not analogy by a sequential representation in the
form of appearance of the object it reproduces. For example a photograph
of Yar Adua is his picture thus an analogic code. An analogue is often
continuous rather than discreet. It has a degree of intensity or longetivity.
For example a facial expression of surprise is not only a sign of a feeling or
condition, but it is actually part of the surprise. Its meaning is intrinsic.
While the digital and analogic are quite different from one another,
they are used together and cannot be separated in actual on-going
communication for example a word (digital) can be uttered in a variety of
paralinguistic ways. (Loud, soft, high or low). The manner of utterance is
analogic.
 The final axiom refers to the relationship between attractants, a
symmetrical relationship is said to exists, when two communicators in a
relationship behave in much the same way. Differences are minimized.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
3.4
SUMMARY
Postulates of communication are the basic assumptions made about
communication. The postulates are also referred to as assumption of communication
through statements or well known saying. The most well known and often quoted,
postulates about communication are made by Watziawick, Beavin and Jackson in
their book pragmatics of communication. The authors presented five axioms about
communication.
3.5
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES.
1.
Explain the term postulates of communication
2.
Mention and explain the five axioms of communication
3.6
REFERENCES
Payre, J. (1999). Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepa kS: Clark Publishing Inc.
Defleur M.L & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication
White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd.
3.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Payre, J. (1999) Applications, Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepa kS: Clark Publishing Inc.
Defleur M.L & Ball-Rokeach S.J.C. (1989): Theories of Mass Communication
White Plains N.Y: Longman Group Ltd.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
21
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TOPIC 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0.
TOPIC:
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION- 19
4.1.
INTRODUCTION -
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4.2.
OBJECTIVES
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4.3.
IN-TEXT
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4.3.1. WHAT ARE THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION?
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4.4.
SUMMARY -
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4.5.
REFERENCES
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4.6.
SUGGESTED READINGS
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
4.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
4.1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing the barriers to effective communication
4.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you shall be able to:
i.
understand the barriers to effective communication
ii.
discuss the barriers to effective communication
4.3. IN-TEXT
4.3.1.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
THE BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Ambiguity: - the message conveyed should not be ambiguous, it
should be as clear as possible so that the recipient can understand
without any doubt, what the message is all about.
Language: - the language used in conveying the message should not
be difficult to understand. If difficult and complex language is used in
conveying any message the recipient may end up not understanding the
message.
Objectivity: - the sender should try to be as objective as possible
whenever conveying a message: the recipient may not have the interest
of listeners or read about a message that is not objectively conveyed.
The sender should understand and have knowledge of what he wants
to say. If he does not understand and have the knowledge of the
message he will convey, he may end up confusing the recipient.
Argumentative message often confused the recipient. When arguments
are used in conveying messages, the recipient may end up getting the
wrong thing.
The use of negative ideas also affects the easy flow of communication.
If negative ideas are used, the recipient more often than not gets less
interest in the message to be conveyed.
The used of harsh words also affect the flow of effective
communication when harsh words are used, the recipient easily can get
annoyed, hence will not understand the message that is conveyed to
him.
4.4. SUMMARY
The barriers to effective communication affect the process of communication
in any given society. These barriers are ambiguity, language, objectivity, use of harsh
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
words, use of negative ideas and argumentative message that often confuse the
recipient.
4.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Explain briefly what you understand by the concept barriers to
effective communication
2.
Discuss the barriers to effective communication
4.6. REFERENCES
McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage
Publication.
Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication USA: The McGraw –Hill
Companies.
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage
Publication.
Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication USA: Mc Graw -Inc
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TOPIC 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0.
TOPIC:
5.1.
MODELS
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INTRODUCTION -
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5.2.
OBJECTIVES
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5.3.
IN-TEXT
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5.3.1. WHAT IS A MODEL
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5.3.2. NEW COMB’S SYMMETRY MODEL
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5.3.3. DANCE’S HELICAL SPIRAL
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5.3.4 DAVID BERLO’S MODEL
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5.4.
SUMMARY -
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5.5.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE -
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5.6
REFERENCES
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5.7.
SUGGESTED READINGS
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26
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
5.0. TOPIC:
UNIT: 3
MODELS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing models and the different models of
communication
5.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
Define and explain models
ii.
Explain models of communication
iii.
Discuss the different models of communication
5.3
IN-TEXT
5.3.1.
WHAT IS A MODEL?
The term model can apply to the symbolic presentation of a thing, a process
or idea. We can thus encounter models of the human figure, trains and planes. A
model that represents ideas and process may be graphic, verbal or mathematical. A
model is usually viewed as an analogy to some real world phenomenon. Thus, models
are interpreted metaphorically, so that the model attempts to draw symbolic parallel
between structures and relationships in the model in the modeled events or process.
A common model then is a symbolic representation of the process of
communication in a graphic verbal or mathematical form. The aim of any
communication model is to help us understand how communication work by
identifying the symbolic elements involved in communication. We should equally
understand that no one model can claim to have exhaustively identified and described
all that is involved in the communication process. At best any one model can only
successfully explain or describe certain aspect of the process of communication as
have arrested the attention and interest of the model builders. Thus in
communication we have different models paying different attention to aspects of the
process of communication. For example models that pays attention to interpersonal
communication, public communication, political communication, traditional
communication and mass communication.
Lass well model of communication (psycho sociological model) Harold D.
Lass well (1948) attempts to explain the essential element that constitute a
communication process. According to him, one cannot suitably describe a
communication action without answering the following questions; who says
what, to whom, in what channel and with what effect.
He identified the following as areas of communication, that is to say the
component
Communication component
Research
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
Who says what ………………………………. content analysis
In what channel ……………………………… media analysis
To whom ……………………………………… audience analysis
With what effect………………………………. effect analysis
When we study communication, we have to identify transmitters (of the messages)
the who aspect by looking into the factors that initiate and guide the act of
communication when we look at the content analysis, we focus on the said word
aspect by looking at the transmission channels (radio, press, TV etc) this is called
media experience refers to things that help make communication effective, that is to
say a situation where the source and a receiver are known to have common
experience and communicate on that basis. Field of experience ranges from religion,
education sex, custom etc.
5.3.2 NEW COMB’S SYMMETRY MODEL
Objects of orientation
X
B
A
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Attitudes of A towards B
Attitudes of
A
Attitudes
B
Attitudes of
B
X
A
X
Theodore Newcomb’s approach to communication is like a psychologist
concern with interaction between human beings. The above diagram of group
networks made by social psychologists and is one of the early formulations of
cognitive consistency.
In its simplest form, a person A, transmits information to another person B,
about something X. the model assumes that A’s orientation (attitude) toward B and
toward X are interdependent, and the 3 constitute a system compromising 4
orientations.
i.
A’s orientation towards X, including both attitude toward X as an object to
be approached or to be avoided and cognitive attribute (beliefs, cognitive
structuring)
ii.
A’s orientation towards B, including both attitude towards A as an object
to be approach or avoided this can be negative or positive.
iii.
B’s orientation towards X.
iv.
B’s orientation towards A.
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
In this model, Newcomb posits that communication is the common and
effective way by which individual orientation to their environment. It is a model for
intentional, two person communicative act. Newcomb derives the following
postulates from his model.

The stronger A’s orientation towards B and X the greater the
symmetry in the relationship of A with B toward X.

The less the attraction between A and B the more likely of the
symmetry towards X’s orientation.
This model tries to explain that we have social and psychological attitude for
the orientation we have. When people we hold in high esteem share our evaluations
of events and ideas, we tend to be more confident of our orientation. It therefore
followed that we communicate individuals we hold in esteem about objects, events,
people and ideas (Xs) that are important to us, to try to reach consensus reorientation (symmetry).
5.3.3.
DANCE’S HELICAL SPIRAL
No clear beginning
No clear ending
According to Frank dance communication has no clear observable beginning
and no clear observable ending. The spiral continuous indefinitely. Dance’s
contended that no transaction may be said to have a fixed boundary, each transaction
is a part of previous communication and each transaction in turn influences the
future of communication.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
5.3.4.
UNIT: 3
DAVID BERLO’S MODEL
Source
communication
skills
Attitudes
Knowledge
Social system
Culture
Message
Elements
Structure
Content
Treatment
Code
Channel
Seeing
Hearing
Touching
Smelling
Tasting
Receiver
Communication skill
Attitudes
Knowledge
Social system
Culture
This model attempts to explain, the various components in the
communication process. The four basic components are: the source, message channel
and receiver, for each of these, there are five elements that need to be considered.
The source and the receiver are treated essentially the same way, in order to study
either of the two we need to know about their communication skills. Thus, speaking
and writing for the source and listening and reading for the receiver, their attitudes,
their knowledge, the social system which they are part of and their culture.
The message consist of both elements and structure which may be broken
down into content, treatment and code for the channel, Berlo list 5 senses
emphasizing that messages may be sent and receive through any or all of the 5 senses.
5.4. SUMMARY
The aim of any communication model is to help us understand how
communication work by identifying the symbolic elements involved in
communication. We should equally understand that no one model can claim to have
exhaustively identified and described all that is involved in the communication
process.
5.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define a model
2.
Explain the model of communication
3.
Discuss the different models of communication
5.6. REFERENCES
Folarin B. (1998) Theories of Mass Communication. An Introductory Text. Ibadan
Stirling-Horden Publishers Nigeria Ltd.
McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage
Publication.
5.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
Folarin B. (1998) Theories of Mass Communication. An Introductory Text. Ibadan
Stirling-Horden Publishers Nigeria Ltd.
McQuail, D. (2007) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theories London: Sage
Publication.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
30
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
SOLUTION TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1
1.
Communication process involves the passing of messages through the
use of symbols which all parties in the communication encounter
understand. It involves the exchange of ideas opinions attitudes beliefs
between people.
2.
i.
ii
3.
to understand ourselves as social beings. Communication is
significant social experiences which occur in relationships,
through communication we get to know others, others get to
us, we make acquaintances, friend’s lovers all through
communication, and we create and destroy relationships
through communication.
to understand ourselves as people. There is also the need to
study communication it helps us know ourselves better, it point
out and therefore brings to our attention some of the possible
reasons we hold our own positive or negative attitude to satisfy
certain inner or psychological need and point out individual
need for consistency.
Framework of communication, this suggest that communication is a
kind of one way traffic with messages transmitted in one direction
from one person to another.
i.
Communication as interaction this view holds that
communication is a string of course and reaction.
ii
Communication as transaction: this framework looks at the act
of communicating as a dynamic interchange between
communicators with no period of passive receptivity on the
communicator.
iii.
Communication as perception is the process in which the
person selects stimuli (or information) from the external world
and at the same time mixes and blends them with internal
stimuli which are within him.
iv.
Communication is creating meaning. When people blend
internal and external stimuli they are engage in the creation of
meaning.
v
Communication is processual: this holds that communication as
a process holds that communication has no discernable
beginning and no discernible end.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TOPIC: 2
1.
Communication contexts holds that central to every communication act is the
creation of meaning .There are many contexts of communication which
usually stand out. These are intra-personal, inter-personal, group,
organizational and Mass Communication.
i. Intra-personal context: this is the most basic and common of all
communication experience. In this context communication takes place
when we communicate with ourselves.
ii. Inter-personal context: here people attempt to share meaning; we can
say that anytime at least two individuals engage in face to face
conversation, we find some type of inter-personal communication.
iii. Group context: everyone is a member of one group or the other; a
class, a family, sorority, a political group, are just a few example of
group communication context.
iv. Organizational communication contains all those characteristics found
in the other context. Organizations are concern with the coordination
of a number of interrelated group activities.
2. Verbal cues; verbal cues are the words we use whether spoken or written; the first
thing to note is that words are symbols. A symbol is something standing for or
taking the place of something else it is an object, behaviour, or a feeling.
3. Non Verbal cues: are those portions of communication other than spoken or
written, they range from characteristics of body motion to pattern of voice, to
affect setting.
TOPIC: 3
1. Postulates of communication are the basic assumptions made about
communication. The postulates are also referred to as assumption of
communication through statements or well known saying.
The following are the postulates of five axioms of communication they
includes; you cannot not communicate, communication is metacommunication, interaction punctuate common sequence, communication is
both digital and diagonal, communication express and differentiate between
symmetrical and complementary interaction.
 You cannot not, communicate: this axiom is important, because it emphasized
that the very attempt to avoid interactions itself a kind of interaction. Thus we
are always communicating whether we like it or not.
 The second axiom seeks to explain that every communication has a content
and relationship aspect, such that the later classify the former and is therefore
meta-communication, when two people are talking to each other relating
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
32
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
information, simultaneously each is also commenting upon the information at
higher level.
 The third axiom seeks to explain that the interaction sequences like word
sequences cannot be understood as a string of isolated elements. The
behaviour of an individual normally brings out the reaction in others and
might have been a reaction to other people.
 The fourth axiom attempts to describe the two types of coding used in
interpersonal communication digital codes are not very easy to understand,
because they are arbitrary, digital codes are also discreet.
 The final axiom refers to the relationship between attractants, a symmetrical
relationship is said to exisits, when two communicators in a relationship
behave in much the same way.
TOPIC: 4
1.
Barrier to effective communication is those impediments to communication.
2. Ambiguity: the message conveyed should not be ambiguous; it should be as clear
as possible so that the recipient can understand without doubt, what the message
is all about.
 Language: the language used in conveying the message should not be difficult
to understand.
 Objective: the sender should try to be as objective as possible whenever
conveying a message.
 The sender should understand and have knowledge of what he wants to say.
 Argumentative message often confused the recipient and should therefore be
avoided.
 The use of negative ideas also affects the easy flow of communication
 The use of harsh words also affects the flow of effective communication when
harsh words are used.
TOPIC: 5
1.
Models can apply to the symbolic presentation of a thing, a process or idea.
We can thus encounter models of the human figure, trains and planes. A
model that represents ideas and process may be graphic, verbal or
mathematical. A common model then is the symbolic representation of he
process of communication in a graphic verbal or mathematical form.
2.
Communication model explain the communication process.
3.
Lass well model of communication (psycho sociological model) Harold D.
Lass well (1948) attempts to explain the essential element that constitute a
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
33
MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
4.
5.
UNIT: 3
communication process. According to him, one cannot suitably describe a
communication action without answering the following questions; who says
what, to whom, in what channel and with what effect.
Newcomb’s approach posits that the communication is the common and
effective way by which individual orientate to their environment. It is a model
of intentional, two persons perhaps communicative act.
Dance’s Helical Spiral: This model posits that communication has no clear
observable beginning and no clear observable ending. The spiral continues
indefinitely.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
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MCM 100 – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 3
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
INSTRUCTIONS:
Attempt any three questions only
TIME ALLOWED:
2:15 minutes
1.
What is communication? Critically examine why the study of communication
is necessary in a given society.
2.
Identify and discuss the framework of communication.
3.
Mention and explain the five contexts of communication.
4.
Distinguish between verbal cues and non verbal cues
5.
Briefly discuss the barriers to effective communication.
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
35