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UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE
LEARNING
ARTS
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
MCM 101 B:
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
Published
UNIT: 2
2008©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in
any form, by mimeograph or any other means without prior
permission in writing from the University of Maiduguri.
This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
programme of the Centre for Distance Learning, University of
Maiduguri.
Further enquiries should be directed to the:
Coordinator
Centre for Distance Learning
University of Maiduguri
P. M. B. 1069
Maiduguri, Nigeria.
This text is being published by the authority of the Senate,
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
iii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
P R E F A C E
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they can
do most of the study on their own. The structure of the study unit
is different from that of conventional textbook. The course writers
have made efforts to make the study material rich enough but
learners need to do some extra reading for further enrichment of
the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library facilities
and where feasible, use the Internet. References are provided to
guide the selection of reading materials required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course
writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts will no
doubt help in improving access to University education.
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
Professor M. M. Daura
Ag Vice-Chancellor
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is arranged to
simplify
your
study.
In
each
topic
of
the
unit,
we
have
introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and self-assessment
exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors will
be available at designated contact centers for tutorial. The center
expects you to plan your work well. Should you wish to read
further you could supplement the study with more information
from the list of references and suggested readings available in the
study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise can
help you to assess whether or not you have actually studied and
understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises are provided at the
end of the study unit for you to assess yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
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CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a form of
examination type questions for you to answer and send to the
center. You are expected to work on your own in responding to the
assignments. The TMA forms part of your continuous assessment
(C.A.) scores, which will be marked and returned to you. In
addition, you will also write an end of Semester Examination,
which will be added to your TMA scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through the
different units of your study.
vii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
The course is divided into five topics. Each topic is divided into sub-topics.
Topic 1 explains attitude Topic 2. Discusses Mass Communication Topic 3. Looks at
organizational communication, Topic 4 discusses mediated communication, Topic 5
looks at listening as indispensable in communication.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
MCM 101 B:
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
5.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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TOPIC 1:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
ATTITUDE
1.1
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing attitude, its definition, its relationship with
beliefs, opinion and prejudice, the development of attitude and functions.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic students would be able to.
i.
Define attitude
ii.
Explain attitude, beliefs opinion and prejudice
iii.
Explain attitude change and modification
iv.
Discuss the functions of attitude
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1
ATTITUDE
According to Lambert, 1964 “An attitude is an organized consistent in manner
of things reacting to people, group, social issue or mere generally to any event in the
environment.
A comprehensive definition of an attitude is the one given by Allport (1935)
according to him, an attitude is a mental stage of readiness organized through
experience, exerting a direct or dynamic influence upon the individual’s responses to
all objects in situation with which it is related.
It is a pre-disposition to responses in a certain way to a person, object
situation event or idea. This response may come without conscious reflection, a
person who shows a certain attitude is reaching to conception of that thing rather
than to its actual state. Another is more enduring than a mood or whim, it produces a
consistent responses. For example a man who has unfriendly attitude toward
foreigners will tend to show dislike for most foreigners he meets or hear about.
The essential component of an attitude is through beliefs, feelings or emotions
or tendencies to react. Attitudes are therefore said to be formed when these
components are so interrelated that specific feelings and reactions tendencies
becomes consistently associated with the attitude object. Our attitude is the cause of
coping with and adjusting to our social environment. Once attitude are developed,
they bring regularity to our mood of reacting and facilitate social adjustment.
In early stage of attitude development, the components can be modified by
new experiences. Later however, their organization may become inflexible and
stereotype, usually, become what we have been encouraging over long period of time
to react in standard ways to particular events or groups. As an attitude becomes
firmly set, we become too ready to categorize people or events according to
emotionally toned parklands of thoughts so that we fail to recognize individuality or
uniqueness.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
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We are not fully conscious of most of our attitudes nor are we aware of the
extensive influence they have on our social behaviour but of we analyzed oneself
closely one can learn to detect the function of selected, powerful attitude. If an
individual has develop a strong negative or positive attitude toward communism, he
considers and evaluates any actions by communists or anti communists in a sterotype
fashion. On careful self analysis he can actually sense his reaction, hatred or implied
identifications as he absorbs their activities. Similarly when a new acquaintance stands
out to have the same view as we do towards various social issues, we can sense the
growth of favourable feelings towards him.
1.3.2
ATTITUDE BELIEFS OPINION PREJUDICE
We have already seen beliefs as one of the component of attitudes. Beliefs, is a
mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition without the full
intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth. Belief has been distinguished
according to their degree of certainty; a surmise or a suspicion, an opinion or a
conviction. Belief becomes knowledge only when the truth of a proposition becomes
evidence to the believers. Note that belief in someone or something is basically
different from belief that a proposition is true.
Attitudes are closely related to opinions involves a person’s judgment about a
likelihood of event or relationship, where as attitude evolves a persons wishes and
desires about events or relationships. We can distinguish between opinion and
attitude in that a person can state his opinion in word but may not always be able to
express his attitude in the same way. He will reveal his attitude by his action and only
indirectly by the context of his statements.
Attitudes are also related to prejudice a prejudice is a rigidly fixed, attitudes
usually unfavourable. An attitude becomes a prejudice when the pre-disposition is so
strong that no attention is paid to evidence that might change reaction. Example if a
man says that all government employees’ graft, he is showing an attitude. If he refuses
to accept proof that many government employees are honest he has developed a
prejudice.
1.3.3
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDES
Attitude are defined as consistent, perpetual way of thinking feelings and
reacting to events and persons in other to indicates that attitudes are learned through,
modes of adjustment, or in other words complex habits. Their development therefore
should follow standard principles of learning. Three important principles that
influence learning of attitudes according to Lambert, (1964) includes. Association,
transfer and need satisfaction.
Much evidence suggests that we learn feelings and reaction tendencies through
association and need satisfaction. That is we learn to fear and avoid people who are
associated with unpleasant happenings and to like and approach those associated with
pleasurable happening. By avoiding unpleasant, situation and approaching pleasant
situation we satisfy primary needs for pleasure or comfort. For example our most
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
basic attitudes are learned in infancy through interaction with our parents. Typically
an infant develops strong attitude towards parents because they minister to his needs
and comfort. In time as parents become associated with punishment as well as
pleasure, the child’s attitude towards them will become complex and ambivalent.
Research findings has shown that unfavorable attitude develop, or become
intensified, in social context where we experience disappointments or failures in the
presence of others who by comparison are more successful. Accordingly it is not
unusual to find that members of a whole community developing negative attitudes
towards racial or immigrant groups whom they associate with their economic
difficulties.
It is considered a truism by many psychologists that we learn attitudes through
transfer essentially the same way we learn meanings of concepts through instruction.
People can transfer attitudes to one another by suggesting ways to organize and
integrate certain basic ideas in a close relationship. Feelings and reaction tendencies
can also be transferred as well as thoughts and beliefs. For example somebody could
transfer a completely favourable attitude towards Chadian’s by describing them as
“maltreated” “hard working”, “friendly” and lively. However, he could transfer a
negative attitude by describing them as foreign undependable, dirty untrustworthy
and bandits, That is to say, we incorporate all attitude directed towards us. Because
we are selective which attitude we pick means that lip satisfaction is usually involved
when attitude are transferred.
We also adopt attitude of other important people outside the family as we
grow older, we incorporate attitudes that seem appropriate for belonging to groups
we consider important. Sometimes we change attitude as a means of leaving one
group and becoming part of another.
1.3.4
ATTITUDE CHANGE/MODIFICATION
At first glance, the changing of attitude may seem to be a simple matter, since
attitudes are one, it should be easy enough to modify their intensity or replace an
undesirable one. Attitudes are however not as easy to modify or replace as they are
learned.
As we have seen, once an attitude is developed, it becomes an integral part his
whole style of behaviour changing one’s attitude is not easy, because it becomes part
of network that gives order to one’s personality. Attitudes develop in the home or
through early experiences in groups are particularly instrumental in forming the
structure of attitude network, and are particularly resistant to change.
Nevertheless, we know that attitudes can be changed under certain conditions.
For more research is needed however to explain both the persistent and the
modifiability of attitudes. Social psychologists agree that attitudes are particularly
resistant to change.
a.
They have been learned early in life.
b.
They help satisfy needs
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
c.
They have been deeply integrated into one’s personality and style of one’s
behaviour.
Other important principles that aid or determine attitude change include the
conditioning processes, role of awareness and exposure and effects of repetition.
Conditioning plays an important part in the development of many part in
many emotional development the same thing can be said about many attitude since
an attitude is a tendency to respond emotionally (feeling) to a given attitude stimulus.
Classical conditioning and Operant/instrumental conditioning. Classical
conditioning refers to a condition where one stimulus (a) becomes a substance for
another stimulus (b) as a result of A’s pairing or association with (b). This kind of
conditioning plays an important role in both attitude formation and change.
Advertisers in particular aware of this conditioning effect try to manipulate audience
using it.
In trying to swing audience positively towards the product, for example, they
compare an attractive personality such as an athlete, movie star or a beautiful model,
with the product they are trying to sell. They hope that the audience’s favourable
attitude toward this personality will transfer to the associated product.
Operant or instrumental conditioning refers to a situation where behaviour is
modified by its consequences. In this type of learning the individual “operates” on
the environment (does something). If this behaviours has favourable out come (it
followed by a reward) there is chance, the action will be repeated. The behaviour has
then been reinforced. In relation to attitude change or modification, if such attitudes
draws negative response from the society and reinforce such attitudes if they draw
approval (especially from personalities one respects). Insko (1965) undertook an
experiment and found out that verbal approvals (whether positive or negative)
towards student’s attitude in the unfilled states helps either in reinforcing or
modifying such attitudes as the case may be.
Berkowitz (1980) however, counter argue that, through a subject’s awareness
of how his action may be rewarded facilitate behaviour change. It is not always the
case or necessary he further argued that if the behaviour to be learned is fairly
complex or entails problems solving persons who understand which actions may pay
off one likely to exhibit the greatest learning on the other hand if the desired
objective are fairly simple and don’t call for much thinking conditioning can occur
without the individuals conditioning.
The third principle that seeks to explain attitude change is mere exposure and
the effects of repetition.
1.3.5
FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes, scholars have identified four major functions of attitudes these are:
1. The instrumental, adjective, or utilitarian function. This function is
recognition of the fact that people strive to maximize the rewards in their
external environment and to minimize the penalties (try to satisfy our
needs.). The child develops favourable attitudes towards the subject in his
world which are associated with the satisfaction of his need and can have
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
an unfavourable attitude towards the subject in his world which are
associated with the satisfaction of his needs and an unfavourable attitude
towards objects which torture or punish him. Attitudes acquired in the
service are either the means for reaching the desired goal or avoiding the
undesired ones or affecting association base upon experience in attaining
motive satisfaction.
2. Ego defensive function: people not only seek to make the most of the
external world and what it offers but they also expended a great deal of
their energy on living with themselves, these mechanism by which the
individual project his ego from his own acceptable impulse and from
knowledge of threaten forces from without, and methods by which he
reduces his anxiety’s created by such problems are known as mechanisms
of ego defense.
3. The value expressive function: while the many attitude have the functions
of preventing the individual from revealing to himself and others his true
nature, other attitudes have the functions of giving positive expression to
the central values and the type of person he conceive himself to be.
4. the knowledge function: individuals not only acquired beliefs in the
interest of satisfying various specific needs they also seek knowledge to
give meaning to what will otherwise be an in organized chaotic universe
people need standard of frames of preface in understanding their world
and attitudes help to supply such standards. Many attitudes we have
already acquired give no sufficient basis for interpreting much of what we
perceive to be important for us. According to Walter Lippman (1981) our
already existing stereotype “are unordered, more or less consistent picture
of the world, to which our habits our tastes, our capacities, our comforts
and our hopes have adjusted themselves they may not be a complete
picture of a possible world to which we have adopted”. It follows that new
information will not modify all attitudes unless there is some inadequacy or
in completeness or inconsistency in the existing attitudinal structure as it
relates to the perception of new situations.
1.4
SUMMARY
An attitude is an organized consistent in manner of things reacting to people,
group social issue or more generally to any event in the environment. Beliefs in a
mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition without the full
intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth. Scholars have identified four
functions of attitudes. These are the instrumental function, ego defensive function,
the value expressive function and the knowledge function.
1.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define attitude
2.
Briefly discuss attitude, beliefs opinion and prejudice.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
3.
UNIT: 2
List the functions of attitudes
1.6
REFERENCES
Karlins, M and Abelson, H.I (1970) Persuation: How Opinions And Attitudes Are
Changed (2nd ed)
Newyork; Sprincer In Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication. New York:
McGraw Hill
1.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Karlins, M and Abelson, H.I (1970) Persuation: How Opinions And Attitudes Are
Changed (2nd ed)
Newyork; Sprincer In Pearson J. et al (2003) Human Communication. New York:
McGraw Hill
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
2.0
TOPIC:
MASS COMMUNICATION
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2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
2.0. TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
MASS COMMUNICATION
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing mass communication, its definition, culture,
mass communication and culture, mass communication opportunities and
responsibilities.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i.
define mass communication
ii.
explain mass communication and culture
iii.
discuss mass communication opportunities and responsibilities
2.3
IN-TEXT
2.3.1 MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the
mass media and their audiences. Schramm recast his and Osgood general model of
communication to help us visualize the particular aspects of the mass communication
process. The model and the Osgood and Schramm scheme have much in common
interpreters, encoding, decoding and massages – but it is their differences that are
most significant for our understanding of how mass communication differs from
other forms of communication. For example, where as the original model includes
“message”, the mass communication model offers “many identical messages”.
Additionally mass communication model specifies “feed back” where as the
interpersonal communication model does not when two or more people
communicate face-to-face, the participants can immediately and clearly recognize the
feedback residing in the reciprocal messages.
In Schramm mass communication model, feedback is represented by a dotted
line labeled delayed inferential feedback. This feedback is indirect and direct.
Television executives, for example, must wait a day at the very minimum, and
sometimes a week or a month, to discover the ratings for new programmes.
2.3.2
MASS COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE
Culture defines our realities, but who contributes to the construction and
maintenance of culture? Because culture is constructed and maintained through
communication, it is in communication that cultural power resides. And because mass
media are such a significant part of the modern world, more and more attention is
being paid to the interaction between mass communication and culture.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
2.3.3
MASS
COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
OPPORTUNITIES
AND
RESPONSIBILITIES
Because culture can limit and divide or liberate and unite, it offers us infinite
opportunities to use communication for good if we choose to do so. Carey wrote,
because we have looked at each new advance in communication technology as
opportunities for politics and economics, we have devoted them, almost exclusively,
to government and trade. We have rarely seen them as opportunities to expend (our)
powers to learn and exchange ideas and experience. Who are “we” in this quote? We
are everyone involved in creating and maintaining the culture that defines us. We are
the people involved in mass media industries and the people that compose their
audiences. Together we allow mass communication not only to occur but also to
contribute to the creation and maintenance of culture.
2.4
SUMMARY
Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the
mass media and the audiences. Culture defines our realities. Because culture is
constructed and maintained through communication, it is in communication that
cultural power resides.
2.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define mass communication
2.
Explain mass communication and culture
3.
Discuss mass communication opportunities and responsibilities
2.6
REFERENCES
Baran, S.J. (2004) Introduction to Mass Communication and Culture. (3rd edition)
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
2.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Baran, S.J. (2004) Introduction to Mass Communication and Culture. (3rd edition)
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
3.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing mediated communication and computer
mediated communication, types and computer mediated communication as a process.
3.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic students would be able to:
i.
define mediated communication
ii.
identify types of computer mediated communication
iii.
explain synchronous and a synchronous communication.
iv.
discuss how computer-mediated communication affects
communication process.
the
3.3. IN-TEXT
3.3.1.
MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Mediated communication is any communication interaction using technology
as primary channel. Mediated is also any form of communication that employs
electronic means.
Computer-mediated communication often referred to as CMC, is human-tohuman communication using networked computer environment to facilitate
interaction (shaff martin, & Gay, 2001). CMC is different from mediated
communication because the human-to-human interaction is interactive. When you
e-mail another person; that person can respond to your message when you engage
in an online chat, other people can interact with you by asking questions or
responding to your statements; more advanced programmes like Microsoft net
meeting can even be used to facilitate face-to-face discussion over the internet. In
each of these situations the communication is interactive. You are both a sender
and receiver of communication.
Individuals involved in the computer-mediated interaction serve
simultaneously as source and receiver. Computers, connected via the interest or a
computer network, act as the channel of communication. Because the interaction
is personal, the message can consist of anything the two people wish to discuss; a
movie, politics or even plans for a date. And because CMC is interactive feed
back naturally occurs through the exchange of interactive messages.
3.3.2.
TYPES
OF
COMPUTER
MEDIATED
COMMUNICATION
Nearly every form of computer mediated communication utilizes the internet
or net worked computers to facilitate human to human interaction. E-mail for
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
example can travel around the world using the internet or across the building
using a company’s network. Although all CMC shares the concept of networking,
the similarities in types of CMC end there. Just like mass media have several
varieties, several varieties of CMC also exist. One way to classify types of CMC is
to determine whether the communication is synchronous or asynchronous.
Synchronous communication occurs when members of the communication
interaction are able to interact in real time and each participant is simultaneously a
sender and receiver. For example a face-to-face conversation or telephone call is
synchronous communication. Asynchronous communication occurs when the
communication interaction has delays and each participant must take turns being
the sender and receiver. If you have ever had a penpal or kept in touch with a
friend or family member by mail, you have engaged in a synchronous
communication.
 Electronic mail: Electronic mail or e-mail uses the internet or a
computer network to send add resemble messages to another person
connected to the internet or network e-mail is a popular method of
communication for both organizations and individuals.
 Bulletin board systems: bulletin board systems (BBS) are text-based a
synchronous communication tools to disseminate information to a large
number of people. BBS discussions housed on websites are focused on a
particular topic of internet. BBS like discussion can also take place using
a listserv, which is an e-mail based discussion. Both web-based and email based discussions allow one person to asynchronously post a
message to any number of people who have access to the discussion.
 Instant messaging and chat: instant messaging (IM) is a text-based
form of synchronous communication that allows users to connect two
computers, over the internet and have a “conversation” through their
computers. Instant messaging required specialized soft ware often free
that allows you to contact other people and establish instant messaging.
Internet relay chat (IRC) is a text based synchronous communication
allows multiple users to interact in real time via the internet. Various
websites host chat rooms that allow multiple users to log on, often with
anonymous McName, and interact with other users.
 Audio-video conferencing: it users the internet or a network to
connect two or more multimedia capable computers for live, interactive
conversations using visual and auditory channels of communication. By
using computer microphones and inexpensive cameras, it is possible to
conduct inexpensive conversations with video over internet.
 Multi user environments: Multi user environments (MUDs) are web
based virtual worlds where participants interact and engage in fantasy
role-playing.
CMC and the communication process unlike mass communicate on a personal
level. Because of the personalized nature of CMC, the internet is quickly becoming a
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
tool for creating, enacting and maintaining personal relationships not feasible through
“small mail” long distance telephone calls.
3.4. SUMMARY
Mediated communication is any form of communication that occurs through
electronic means. Various forms of CMC are characterized as synchronous or
asynchronous communication. To use CMC effectively, users must adopt their
communication to the CMC environment.
3.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define mediated communication
2.
Identify types of computer-mediated communication
3.
Explain the differences between synchronous and asynchronous
communication
4.
Discuss how computer-mediated communication affects the
communication process
3.6. REFERENCES
Pearson J, et al (2003) Human Communication Boston USA: McGraw Hill.
3.7. SUGGESTED READINGS
Pearson J, et al (2003) Human Communication Boston USA: McGraw Hill.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 4:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
4.0. TOPIC:
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ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
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4.1.
INTRODUCTION -
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4.2.
OBJECTIVES
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4.3.
IN-TEXT
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4.3.1.
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
4.3.2.
PARADIGM DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
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4.3.3.
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
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4.3.4
NETWORK -
4.3.5.
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INTERDEPENDENCE
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4.3.6.
RELATIONSHIP
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4.3.7.
ENVIRONMENT -
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4.3.8.
UNCERTAINTY
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4.4
SUMMARY -
4.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
4.6
REFERENCES
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4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
4.0
TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
ORGANISATION COMMUNICATION
4.1. INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing organizational communication, paradigm
and definition of organizational communication and the process.
4.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, students would be able to.
i.
define organization
ii.
explain the paradigm of organizational communication
iii.
the perception of organizational communication
4.3. IN-TEXT
4.3.1
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Redding and San-born define organizational communication as the sending
and receiving of information within a complex organization. Their perception of
the field includes the following; internal communication; human relations;
management union relations; downward, up word, and horizontal communication
skills of speaking listening and writing; and communication programme
evaluation. Katz and Kahn perceive organizational communication as the flow of
information, and the transmission of meaning within an organization. Using the
general systems model developed for the physical sciences by Von Bertalanffy
(1956,1962) and others Katz and Kahn define organizations as open systems and
discuss such properties as the importing of energy from the environment; the
transformation of this energy into a product or service into the environment; and
the reenergizing of the system from energy sources found once again in the
environment Zelko and Dance primarily discuss the “skills” of communicating in
businesses and professions (speech making, listening, interview, counseling,
conferences, selling, persuading). They perceive organizational communication as
an interdependent system that includes both internal (upward, downward, and
horizontal) and external (public relations, sales advertising) communications.
4.3.2
PARADIGM
AND
DEFINITION
OF
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication can mean and refer to whatever an author
wants. Despite such a variety of viewpoints, a few common strands can be
detected in many of these perceptions.
1. Organizational communication occurs within a complex open system which is
influenced by and influences its environment, both internal (called culture)
and external.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
2. Organizational communication involves messages and their flow, purpose,
direction, and media.
3. Organization communication feelings relationships and skills.
4.3.3.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Is the process of creating and exchanging messages within a network of
interdependent relationships to cope with environmental uncertainty. This perception
of the field of organizational communication includes seven key concepts: process,
message, network, interdependence, relationships, environment and uncertainty. Each
concept is defined and illustrated briefly.
4.3.3.1
PROCESS
An organization is a dynamic open system that creates and exchanges
messages among its members and between its members and its environment. We talk
about “process” because the phenomenon of creating and exchanging messages is
ongoing, ever changing and continuous. Thus an organization is an open process in
which messages are created and exchange within a network of interdependent
relationships to cope with environmental uncertainly.
4.3.3.2
MESSAGE
A symbol is something that stands for something else. A word, for example, is
a symbol when it refers to an object. To communicate a person must be able to
evolve a mental picture of something (create a concept), give it a name, and develop a
feeling about it. Effective communication with another person implies that the
concept the name and the feeling are similar to those of the other person. In other
words effective communication means that you and I refer to the same things when
we talk. We share understanding
In organizational communication, we study the creation and exchange of
messages throughout organizations. Organizational message behaviour can be
examined according to several taxonomies language modality intended receivers,
method of diffusion and purpose flow. Language modality differentiates verbal
(linguistic) from non verbal (non linguistic) messages. Examples of verbal messages in
organizations are letters, speeches and conversations. With verbal messages we are
interested in studying the exact word choice used in the speech letter or conversation.
Intended receivers include people either within or outside the organization.
Message in the first instance are intended for internal sue, and those in the second
instance, for external use. Examples of internal message systems includes: memos,
bulletins and meetings. External message behaviour is illustrated by advertising
campaigns, public relation efforts sales efforts and civic duties. Internal message are
intended for consumption by the employees of the organization.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
Method of diffusion identifies the particular communication activity employed
during the sending of the messages to other people. Diffusion implies that messages
are spread throughout the organization, either widely or narrowly. Here we are
interested in how messages are spread. Most organizational communication diffusion
methods can be divided into two general categories: those using software and those
using hardware for dissemination. Hardware methods, depends upon electrical or
mechanical power to make them function.
Thayer presents four specific functions of message flow within organization:
to inform, to regulate, to persuade, and to regulate, to persuade, and to integrate.
4.3.4.
NETWORK
Organizations are composed of series of people, each of whom occupies a
specific position or role. Creation and exchange of messages are among these people
take place over a set of pathways called a communication network. A communication
network may include two people only, a few people or an entire organization. Many
factors influence the nature and scope of the network such as role relationships.
Direction of message flow, serial nature of message flow, and content of the message.
4.3.5.
INTERDEPENDENCE
Earlier, we defined an organization as an open system whose parts are all
related to its whole and its environment. We say the nature of this relationship is
interdependent or interlocking because all parts subsystems, affect and are affected by
each other. This means that a change in any part of the system will affect all other
parts of the system. This also means that, in a sense, communication network within
an organization overlap.
Implications for the concept of interdependence centre on the relationships
between the people who occupy the various organizational roles. For example, when
managers make a decision, they would be wise to account for the implications of their
decision on the entire organization of course, one way to compensate for the
interdependent relationships affected by and affecting a decision is to communicate
all possible message to all possible within the organization. Nationally so much
information would cause the organization to collapse from information over load.
4.3.6.
RELATIONSHIP
The fifth key concept inherent in our definition of organizational
communication is relationship. Exactly what relationships are important for study in
an organization? Since an organization is open, living social system, its connecting
parts function in the hands of people. In other words, the network through which
message travel in an organization is connected by people. Thus, one of our interests
is to study the human relationships within the organization by focusing on the
communication behaviour of the people involved in a relationship.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
4.3.7.
ENVIROMENT
Duncan (1972) has defined the environment as “the totality of physical and
social factors that are taken into account in the decision making behaviour of
individuals in the system”. He further breaks down and analyses the environment in
terms of its internal ad external components. The farmer refers to the personnel
components, the functional and staff components. The former refers to the
personnel component, the functional and staff component, and the organizational
level component (e.g. objectives/goals, products services integration). The external
component refers to customers, supplies competitors, technology etc.
As the environment changes, new information demands are placed upon the
organization. It must cope with these changes in environment by creating and
exchanging messages both internally among relevant units and externally to important
publics. Organizations that do will live and probably be effective those that do not
will die.
4.3.8 UNCERTAINTY
An organization creates and exchanges messages among its members to
reduce the uncertainty they face from environmental factors some organizations, such
as research and developmental organizations, faced with highly complex task, require
a high degree of integration, and this; fewer message, exchanges to confront
uncertainty in the environment.
Uncertainty can occur when members of an organization receives too much
information or more than they really need to confront the demands of their
environment. If one of the major concerns of organizational communication is to
determine exactly how much information people need to reduce their uncertainty
without being overloaded.
4.4. SUMMARY
Organizational communication is the sending and receiving of information
within a complex organization. Organizational communication is also the process of
creating and exchanging messages within a network of interdependent relationships
to cope with environmental uncertainty. This perception includes seven key concepts:
process message network, interdependence, relationship, environment and
uncertainty.
4.5. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
Define organizational communication
2.
What is your perception of organizational communication?
3.
List seven key concepts in organizational communication
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
4.6. REFERENCES
Goldhaber, M.G. (1990) Organizational Communication (5th Edition). USA Wm C
Brown Publishers
4.7
SUGGESTED READINGS
Goldhaber, M.G. (1990) Organizational Communication (5th edition) USA: Wm
C Brown Publishers.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
TOPIC 5:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES
5.0.
TOPIC:
THE LISTENING PROCESS
5.1.
INTRODUCTION -
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5.2.
OBJECTIVES
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5.3.
IN-TEXT
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5.3.1 LISTENING PROCESS
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5.3.2. LISTENING AS PART OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS- 23
5.3.3. LEVELS OF LISTENING -
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5.3.4. PHYSICAL BARRIERS TO LISTENING
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5.3.5. IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS
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5.4.
SUMMARY -
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5.5.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE -
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5.6
REFERENCES
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25
5.7.
SUGGESTED READINGS
-
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25
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-
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
5.0. TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
THE LISTENING PROCESS
5.1
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be discussing listening, listening as a communication
process, levels of listening and improving listening and mental barriers to listening.
5.2. OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, students would be able to:
i.
explain listening
ii.
discuss listening as a communication process
iii.
discuss the levels of listening
iv.
explain the mental barriers to listening.
5.3. IN-TEXT
5.3.1. THE LISTENING PROCESS
When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the
listening process, we have opportunities to effect communication positively or
negatively.
1.
Sensing: simply leaving the words before Ahmed can be a good listener,
Aisha must get his attention. After she does so, Ahmed can receive the
message she wants to communicate. Later, they meet in Ahmed’s office so
they can hear each other better.
2.
Interpreting: deriving meaning from the words Aisha’s Message is clear.
Ahmed has no problem understanding what she is saying.
3.
Evaluating: judging what the message is about in context. Ahmed hears
more than the words; he is particularly good at hearing everything Aisha is
saying. She is doing more than talking about her upcoming meeting with
patience. She is warned and wants advice.
4.
Responding: twining listening into a two-way process. This step allows
feedback, advice action and reaction.
5.3.2.
LISTENING
AS
PART
OF
COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
To appreciate listening, think about its role in the communication process.
Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Feed back enables us to
modify a message and improve understanding. Listening is essential to feed back. If
someone merely hears a message, there can be no genuine feed back.
5.3.3.
LEVELS OF LISTENING
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
While we want to be better listeners, it is probably not realistic to be listening
intently all the time. Listening takes concentration and effort, so we reserve our most
demanding listening skills for special occasions. We can appreciate this when we
consider the levels of listening.
1.
Listening for enjoyment. This is the easiest of the five levels of listening.
We listen for enjoyment when we listen to music, TV or radio for our own
entertainment or amusement. Listening for enjoyment requires momentary
concentration.
2.
Listening for information: when you listen to a class discussion or an
informative speech, you are usually listening for information. This level of
listening requires more concentration than listening for enjoyment
listening for information carries with it an expectation of retention.
Retention the remembering and recall of information, is an expectation of
this level of listening.
3.
Critical listening: critical listening is an even more active process. Not only
does it involve listening for information, it involves analyzing and
evaluating information. A critical listener will take in information and
retain it. At the same time, a critical listener questions the information and
tests it against other information. A critical listener is able to give more
thoughtful and perceptive feedback.
Don’t confuse critical thinking with being critical. We usually think
that being critical is a negative quality.
4.
Precision listening: precision refers to exactness or the ability to distinguish
clearly. Listening with precision goes beyond listening critically. Precision
listening is listening with attention to details that give you clues to the
speaker’s emotion or state of mind. Precision listener, not only hear the
facts, they hear the subtle change in a speakers voice that reveal what the
speaker feels.
5.
Empathic listening: this is the highest level of listening. It requires
concentration, retention, and judgment more important, it requires
empathy. We have preciously defined empathy as “the ability to put your
self in someone else’s place and understand his or her feelings”. Listening
with empathy requires the skills of a precision listener plus one very
important motive.
5.3.4.
PHYSICAL BARRIERS TO LISTENING
The most common physical barriers to listening are the physical barriers to
hearing itself. A total or partial hearing loss will make listening more difficult but
certainly not impossible other physical barriers include common circumstances such
as poor audio system. Note that both speakers and listeners share responsibility for
good listening mental barriers to listening.
Mental barriers to listening are more common mental barrier is lack of
concentration, a wandering mind or inattention. It’s no wonder that our minds
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
sometimes wonder when are listening our brain process words at over 500 words per
minute. Most speakers communicate at 125-250 words per minute. When we think
faster than other talk (especially when we listen for information criticism, precision,
and empathy) we should fill in the extra time with empathy judgment analysis and the
other skills that help us listen.
Cultural barriers to listening when people from two different cultures try to
communicate, both need to take care that the communication is effective some times
cultural barrier can be language. It’s obvious that a Hausa man and an Ibgo man
might have to overcome language to communicate better, but even speakers of the
same language sometimes have cultural differences.
One major barrier to listening is accents. For examples an Englishman
listening to non-native speakers of English may require high level of concentration.
One strategy for managing this potential barrier is to listen for over all content rather
than trying to understand each specific word the speaker uses.
5.3.6.
IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS
Developing good listening habits (and fighting poor listening habits) is a lifelong search for understanding and being understood.
1.
Work on concentration: let your mind wonder. Look at the person who is
speaking and put yourself in his or her place.
2.
Practice good listening. We all have plenty of chances to listen. Listening
“exercises” can include listening to others as well as listening to your
environment.
3.
Prepare yourself to listen. Take care that you situate yourself so you can
see and hear. If you are going to listen to a topic for the first time, consider
researching and finding out about it. If there are preparatory materials (an
assignment in the text, a handout, an e-mail a web site) read it. Make notes
if necessary.
5.4. SUMMARY
When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the
listening process we have opportunities to affect communication positively or
negatively. To appreciate listening, we should examine its role in the communication
process. Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Listening is
therefore essential to feedback. It is therefore necessary for us to listen to enable us
give feedback on a message communicated to us.
5.5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
1.
explain listening
2.
discuss listening as a communication process
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
5.6. REFERENCES
Payne, J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepa KS: Clark Publishing INC.
5.7. SUGGESTED READINGS
Payne, J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and Professional Contexts.
Tokepa KS: Clark Publishing INC.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
SOLUTIONS TO THE EXERCISES
TOPIC: 1
1. An attitude is an organized consistent in manner of things reacting to people,
group social issue or more generally to any event in the environment.
2. Beliefs in a mental attitude of acceptance or assert towards a proposition
without the full intellectual knowledge required to guarantee its truth.
Opinions involve a person’s wishes and desires about events or relationships.
While prejudice is a rigidly fixed attitudes usually unfavourable.
3. Scholars have identified four functions of attitudes. These are the instrumental
function, ego defensive function, the value expressive function and the
knowledge function.
TOPIC: 2
1.
Mass communication is the process of creating shared meaning between the
mass media and their audiences.
2.
Culture defines our realities, but who contributes to the construction and
maintenance of culture? Because culture is constructed and maintained
through communication, it is in communication that cultural power resides.
And because mass media are such a significant part of the modern world,
more and more attention is being paid to the interaction between mass
communication and culture.
3.
Carey wrote, because we have looked at each new advance in communication
technology as opportunities for politics and economics, we have devoted
them, almost exclusively, to government and trade. We have rarely seen them
as opportunities to expend (our) powers to learn and exchange ideas and
experience.
TOPIC: 3
1.
Mediated communication is any communication interaction using technology
as primary channel. Mediated is also any form of communication that employs
electronic means.
2.
Electronic mail, Bulletin board systems, instant messaging and chat, Audiovideo conferencing and Multi user environments.
3.
Synchronous communication occurs when members of the communication
interaction are able to interact in real time and each participant is
simultaneously a sender and receiver. For example a face-to-face conversation
or telephone call is synchronous communication. Asynchronous
communication occurs when the communication interaction has delays and
each participant must take turns being the sender and receiver.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
4.
UNIT: 2
CMC and the communication process unlike mass communicate on a personal
level. Because of the personalized nature of CMC, the internet is quickly
becoming a tool for creating, enacting and maintaining personal relationships
not feasible through “small mail” long distance telephone calls.
TOPIC: 4
1.
Redding and San-born define organizational communication as the sending
and receiving of information within a complex organization.
2.
This perception of the field of organizational communication includes seven
key concepts: process, message, network, interdependence, relationships,
environment and uncertainty.
3.
The key concepts includes: process, message, network, interdependence,
relationships, environment and uncertainty.
TOPIC: 5
1.
When we listen, we go through separate stages or steps. At each step of the
listening process, we have opportunities to effect communication positively or
negatively.
2.
To appreciate listening, think about its role in the communication process.
Feedback is an essential part of the communication process. Feed back
enables us to modify a message and improve understanding. Listening is
essential to feed back.
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MCM 101 B – INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
UNIT: 2
TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1.
Discuss the role of listening in a communication process
2.
What do you understand by attitude, beliefs, opinion and prejudice?
3.
Discuss the relationship between mass communication and culture
4.
How does computer-mediated communication affects the communication
process?
5.
Discuss the paradigm of organizational communication?
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