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7 The Skeleton PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by Alexander G. Cheroske Mesa Community College at Red Mountain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 1: Axial Skeleton • Learning Outcomes • 7.1 Identify the bones of the cranium and face, and identify and locate the cranial sutures. • 7.2 Explain the significance of the markings and locations of the anterior and posterior aspects of the facial and cranial bones. • 7.3 Explain the significance of the markings and locations of the lateral and medial aspects of the facial and cranial bones. • 7.4 Explain the significance of the markings and locations of the inferior and interior aspects of the facial and cranial bones. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 1: Axial Skeleton • Learning Outcomes • 7.5 Describe and locate the surface features of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones. • 7.6 Describe the structure of the orbital complex and nasal complex and the functions of their individual bones. • 7.7 Describe the mandible and the associated bones of the skull. • 7.8 Describe key structural differences among the skulls of infants, children, and adults. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 1: Axial Skeleton • Learning Outcomes • 7.9 Identify and describe the curves of the spinal column and their functions, and identify the vertebral regions. • 7.10 Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. • 7.11 Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. • 7.12 Explain the significance of the articulations between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs, and between the ribs and the sternum. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 1: Axial Skeleton • Axial skeleton • Forms longitudinal axis of body • Includes: • Skull and associated bones • Thoracic cage • Vertebral column • Various supplemental cartilages • Typically 80 bones • ~40% of bones in body Animation : Whole Skeleton © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 1: Axial Skeleton • Axial skeleton • Functions • Protect (brain, spinal cord, and organs in ventral cavity) • Permit limited movement but strong and reinforced with ligaments • Provide attachment for muscles that 1. Adjust positions of head, neck, and trunk 2. Perform respiratory movements 3. Stabilize or position parts of appendicular skeleton that support limbs Animation: Whole Axial Skeleton © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the axial skeleton SKELETAL SYSTEM 206 Cranium 8 Skull Face Skull and associated 29 bones Associated bones Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid AXIAL 80 SKELETON 14 1 Sternum 1 Thoracic 25 cage APPENDICULAR 126 SKELETON (see Section 2) Ribs Costal cartilages (cartilages of ribs) 24 Intervertebral discs (cartilage) Vertebrae 24 Vertebral column 26 Sacrum 1 Coccyx 1 Figure 7 Section 1 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.1: Skull • Skull • 22 bones • Cranium (8) • Cranial bones that form the cranial cavity (fluid-filled chamber that cushions and supports brain) • Blood vessels, nerves, and membranes attach to brain • Outer surface for muscles that move eyes, jaws, and head • Facial bones (22) • Protect and support entrances for digestive and respiratory tracts • Provide attachment for muscles controlling facial expression and assist in manipulating food © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.1: Skull Animation: Skull: Lateral View of the Adult Skull Animation: Skull: Skull Exploded Animation: Skull: Whole Skull © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The 22 bones that form the skull, plus the seven bones associated with the skull FACE SKULL 14 Maxillary bones 2 8 Occipital bone 1 Palatine bones 2 Parietel bones 2 Nasal bones 2 Inferior nasal conchae 2 Frontal bone 1 Temporal bones 2 Zygomatic bones 2 Lacrimal bones 2 Vomer 1 Mandible 1 CRANIUM Sphenoid 1 Ethmoid 1 ASSOCIATED BONES 7 (see Module 7.7) Hyoid bone 1 Auditory ossicles enclosed in 6 temporal bones Figure 7.1 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 The facial and cranial bones of the skull Cranial Bones Frontal bone Sphenoid Parietal bone Temporal bone Ethmoid Occipital bone Figure 7.1 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 Module 7.1: Skull • Associated bones • Six auditory ossicles in temporal bones • Three ear bones on each side • Hyoid bone connected to inferior surfaces of temporal bones © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.1: Skull • Joints (articulations) • Where two bones interconnect • Called sutures in the skull • Immovable • Bones tied together with dense fibrous connective tissue • Four major sutures 1. Coronal (frontal to parietal bones) • Calvaria (skullcap formed by frontal, parietal, and occipital bones) 2. Squamous (temporal to parietal bones) 3. Sagittal (between parietal bones) 4. Lambdoid (occipital to parietal bones) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The major sutures of the skull Coronal suture Frontal bone Parietal bone Squamous suture Temporal bone Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Lateral view of skull Sagittal suture Parietal bone Parietal bone Sutural bone Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Posterior view of skull © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.1 5 – 6 Module 7.1 Review a. Define suture. b. Identify the bones of the cranium. c. Describe the functions of the facial bones. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Facial bones • Nasal bones • Support superior portion of bridge of nose • Attached to cartilages of distal portion of nose • Lacrimal bones • Form part of medial wall of orbit (eye socket) • Palatine bones • Form posterior portion of hard palate and contribute to floor of each orbit • Zygomatic bones • Contribute to rim and lateral wall of orbit • Form part of cheekbone © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Facial bones (continued) • Maxillae • Support upper teeth • Form inferior rim, lateral margins of external nares, upper jaw, and most of hard palate • Inferior nasal conchae • Create turbulence in air entering nasal cavity • Increase surface area to promote warming and humidification of incoming air • Vomer • Forms inferior portion of bony nasal septum © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Facial bones (continued) • Mandible • Forms lower jaw Animation: Skull: Facial © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Cranial bones • Frontal bone • Forms anterior portion of cranium and roof of orbits • Frontal sinuses secrete mucus that helps flush nasal cavities • Sphenoid • Forms part of floor of cranium • Unites facial and cranial bones • Acts as crossbridge to strengthen skull • Ethmoid • Forms anteromedial floor of cranium and roof of nasal cavity, and part of nasal septum and medial orbit wall © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the skull in anterior view Facial Bones Nasal bone Cranial Bones Parietal bone Frontal bone Lacrimal bone Palatine bone Sphenoid Zygomatic bone Maxilla Ethmoid Inferior nasal concha Vomer Mandible Figure 7.2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Cranial bones (continued) • Parietal bones • Form part of superior and lateral surfaces of cranium • Occipital bone • Contributes to posterior, lateral, and inferior surfaces of cranium • External occipital crest • Helps stabilize vertebrae of neck © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.2: Facial and cranial bones • Cranial bones (continued) • Temporal bones • Form part of lateral wall of cranium • Articulate with facial bones and form articulations with mandible • Surround and protect sense organs of inner ear • Attachment site for muscles closing jaw and moving head • Mastoid process • Attachment for muscles that rotate or extend head • Styloid process • Attached to ligaments supporting hyoid bone and tendons of several muscles © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the skull in posterior view Cranial Bones Sagittal suture Parietal bones Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Temporal bone Squamous suture Mastoid process Styloid process External occipital crest Mandible Figure 7.2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.2 Review a. Identify the facial bones. b. Quincy suffers a hit to the skull that fractures the right superior lateral surface of his cranium. Which bone is fractured? c. Identify the following bones as either a facial bone or a cranial bone: vomer, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and inferior nasal conchae. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.3: Lateral and medial aspects of skull • Lateral aspect • Frontal squama (forehead) • Forms anterior, superior portion of cranium • Provides surface for attachment for facial muscles • Alveolar processes • Support upper and lower teeth in mandible and maxillae • Mental protuberance (mentalis, chin) • Attachment site for several facial muscles • Mandibular angle • Posterior, inferior corner of lower jaw © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.3: Lateral and medial aspects of skull • Lateral aspect (continued) • Zygomatic process • Articulates with zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch (cheekbone) • External acoustic meatus • Ends at tympanic membrane • Squamous part of temporal bone • Convex, irregular surface bordering squamous suture • Superior and inferior temporal lines • Mark attachment of temporalis muscle © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The skull in lateral view Frontal squama (forehead) Coronal suture Superior and inferior temporal lines Squamous part (of temporal bone) Squamous suture Sphenoid Parietal bone Frontal bone External acoustic meatus Ethmoid Lacrimal bone Temporal bone Nasal bone Maxilla Alveolar processes Lambdoid suture Zygomatic bone Occipital bone Mastoid process Styloid process Mandible Zygomatic arch (cheekbone) Mental protuberance Mandibular angle Figure 7.3 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.3: Lateral and medial aspects of skull • Medial aspect • Frontal sinuses • Variable in size and appearance • Hypoglossal fossa • Recess that supports/protects pituitary gland • Bony wall called sella turcica • Petrous part of temporal bone • Encloses structures of inner ear and auditory ossicles in middle ear © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.3: Lateral and medial aspects of skull • Medial aspect (continued) • Internal acoustic meatus • Medial surface of petrous portion of temporal bone • Carries blood vessels and nerves to inner ear • Conveys facial nerve to stylomastoid foramen • Hypoglossal canal • Lateral base of occipital condyle to inner surface of occipital bone near foramen magnum • Hypoglossal nerves pass through © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The interior of the skull, as revealed by sagittal section that passes just to the left of the midline Sphenoid Frontal bone Coronal suture Sphenoidal sinus (right) Sella turcica Petrous part (of temporal bone) Frontal sinuses Parietal bone Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Nasal bone Temporal bone Ethmoid Vomer Occipital bone Palatine bone Internal acoustic meatus Hypoglossal canal Maxilla © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Mandible Styloid process Figure 7.3 2 Module 7.3 Review a. Name the meatuses found in the temporal bone. b. What is the function of the internal acoustic meatus? c. The alveolar processes perform what functions in which bones? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.4: Interior and inferior surface of skull • Foramina • Foramen lacerum (lacerare, to tear) • Jagged slit between sphenoid and petrous portion of temporal bone • Contains cartilage and small arteries for inner cranium • Foramen ovale • Passage of nerves for jaws • Carotid canal • Passage of carotid artery © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.4: Interior and inferior surface of skull • Foramina (continued) • Jugular foramen • Between occipital and temporal bone • Passage of jugular vein • Stylomastoid foramen • Posterior to base of styloid process • Passage of facial nerve to facial muscles • Foramen magnum • Connects cranial cavity and vertebral canal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.4: Interior and inferior surface of skull • Other features • Mandibular fossa • Inferior surface of temporal bone • Articulation site with mandible • Occipital condyles • Articulation sites for first vertebra • Inferior and superior nuchal lines • Attachment sites for muscles and ligaments that stabilize head with neck vertebrae • Internal occipital crest • Ridge that anchors blood vessels and membranes that stabilize brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. An inferior view of the skull Zygomatic bone Frontal bone Palatine bone Maxilla Vomer Foramina Foramen lacerum Sphenoid Foramen ovale Zygomatic arch Styloid process Carotid canal Mandibular fossa Jugular foramen Temporal bone Occipital condyle Stylomastoid foramen Occipital bone Lambdoid suture Foramen magnum Inferior and superior nuchal lines External occipital crest Figure 7.4 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 The interior of the skull, as revealed by horizontal section Nasal bones Frontal bone Crista galli Cribriform plate Ethmoid Sella turcica Foramen rotundum Sphenoid Foramen lacerum Temporal bone Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum Carotid canal Internal acoustic meatus Mastoid foramen Jugular foramen Parietal bone Hypoglossal canal Occipital bone Internal occipital crest © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.4 2 Module 7.4 Review a. Identify the bone containing the carotid canal, and name the structure that runs through this passageway. b. Which foramen provides a passageway for nerves innervating the jaw? c. In which bone is the foramen magnum located, and what is significant about this opening? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Sphenoid • Optic canals • Passage of optic nerves from eyes to brain • Lesser wings • Extend horizontally anterior to sella turcica • Greater wings • Extend laterally • Form part of cranial floor and posterior wall of orbit © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Sphenoid (continued) • Sella turcica • Saddle-shaped enclosure • Hypophyseal fossa • Depression within sella turcica • Occupied by pituitary gland • Sphenoidal spine • Posterior, lateral corner of each greater wing © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Sphenoid (continued) • Foramina (penetrate greater wing and carry blood vessels and nerves) • Foramen spinosum (to orbit) • Foramen ovale (to face) • Foramen rotundum (to jaws) • Superior orbital fissure (to cranial cavity membranes) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Two views of the sphenoid Greater wing Optic canal Superior surface of the sphenoid Lesser wing Hypophyseal fossa Sella turcica Foramen spinosum Foramen Foramen Superior ovale rotundum orbital fissure Sphenoidal spine Figure 7.5 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Ethmoid • Cribriform plate (cribrum, sieve) • Forms anteromedial floor of cranium and roof of nasal cavity • Olfactory foramina permit passage of olfactory nerves for sense of smell • Crista galli (crista, crest + gallus, chicken; cock’s comb) • Bony ridge that projects superior to cribiform plate • Attachment of falx cerebri, which stabilizes brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Ethmoid (continued) • Lateral masses • Ethmoidal labyrinth • Interconnected air cells that connect to nasal cavity • Superior nasal conchae (projections) • Middle nasal conchae (projections) • Perpendicular plate • Forms part of nasal septum © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The ethmoid Cribriform plate Crista galli Lateral masses Superior and middle nasal conchae Perpendicular plate Superior surface Posterior surface Figure 7.5 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.5: Sphenoid, ethmoid, and palatine bones • Palatine • Forms posterior portion of hard palate and contributes to floor of each orbit • Orbital process • Forms part of floor of orbit • Normally contains small sinus that opens into sphenoidal sinus • Horizontal plate • Forms posterior part of hard palate • Perpendicular plate • Extends from horizontal plate to orbital process © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The palatine bones Orbital process Perpendicular plate of the palatine bone Nasal crest Horizontal plate Figure 7.5 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.5 Review a. Identify the bone containing the optic canal, and cite the structures using this passageway. b. Which bone contains the sella turcica? What structure is in the depression (fossa) within the sella turcica? c. Identify the bone containing the cribriform plate. What is significant about this structure? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Orbit • Contains eye • Formed by seven bones of the orbital complex 1. Frontal (roof) 2. Zygomatic (lateral wall) 3. Maxilla (most of floor) 4. Lacrimal (medial wall) 5. Ethmoid (medial wall) 6. Sphenoid (posterior wall) 7. Palatine (posterior wall) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Bony features of orbit • Lacrimal fossa • • • Shallow depression in frontal bone Lacrimal (tear) gland location Supra-orbital margin • • Thickening of frontal bone to help protect eye Supra-orbital notch • Passage of blood vessels to eyebrow, eyelids, and frontal sinuses • Also occurs as supra-orbital foramen when fully enclosed © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Bony features of orbit (continued) • Lacrimal sulcus • • • • Groove along anterior, lateral surface of lacrimal bone Location of lacrimal sac Leads to nasolacrimal canal Nasolacrimal canal • Formed by maxilla and lacrimal bone • Protects lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct (carries tears to nasal cavity) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Bony features of orbit (continued) • Infra-orbital foramen • • Passage of major sensory nerve that reaches brain through foramen rotundum Zygomaticofacial foramen • Anterior surface of zygomatic bone • Carries sensory nerve innervating cheek © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the orbital complex Lacrimal fossa Supra-orbital margin Supra-orbital notch Frontal bone Palatine bone Ethmoid Lacrimal sulcus Sphenoid Temporal bone Nasolacrimal canal Zygomatic bone Zygomaticofacial foramen Intra-orbital foramen Middle nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Maxilla Figure 7.6 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Nasal complex • Bones that enclose the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses (secretions flush nasal cavities) • • Paranasal sinuses • Sphenoidal sinuses • Ethmoid air cells • Frontal sinuses • Palatine • Maxillary sinuses Lighten skull and provide area of mucous epithelium © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the nasal complex Cranial cavity Frontal bone Ethmoidal air cells Orbit Zygomatic bone Maxillary sinus Maxilla Frontal section Mandible Nasal cavities Figure 7.6 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.6: Orbital and nasal complexes • Nasal cavity bones • Superior wall • • • • Frontal Sphenoid Ethmoid Lateral walls • • • Maxillae Lacrimal bones Ethmoid • Inferior nasal conchae © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones that form and surround the nasal cavity, as revealed by a sagittal section with nasal septum removed Frontal sinuses Frontal bone Sphenoidal sinus Sphenoid Ethmoid Nasal bone Lacrimal bone Superior nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Middle nasal concha Perpendicular plate of palatine bone Pterygoid plates Maxilla Hard palate Figure 7.6 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.6 Review a. Identify the bones of the orbital complex. b. Describe the frontal sinuses. c. To which complex—nasal, orbital, or both— does each of the following bones contribute? frontal, maxilla, palatine, nasal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.7: Mandible and associated skull bones • Mandible • Condylar process • • Articulates with temporal bone at temporomandibular joint Coronoid process • • Insertion point for temporalis muscle Mandibular notch • • Depression that separates condylar and coronoid processes Alveolar process • Supports lower teeth © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.7: Mandible and associated skull bones • Mandible (continued) • Body • • Horizontal portion of bone Ramus • • Ascending part that begins at mandibular angle Mylohyoid line • • Insertion of mylohyoid muscle (supports mouth floor) Mandibular foramen • Passageway for blood vessels and nerves that service the lower teeth © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The mandible in lateral view Coronoid process Teeth (molars) Condylar process Alveolar process Mental foramen Mandibular notch Body of the mandible Ramus of the mandible Figure 7.7 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 The medial surface of the mandible Coronoid Condylar process process Mylohyoid line Head Mandibular foramen Alveolar part Position of the submandibular salivary gland Figure 7.7 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.7: Mandible and associated skull bones • Associated skull bones • Hyoid bone • Supports larynx • Attachment site for muscles of larynx, pharynx, and tongue • Greater horns • • Help support larynx • Attachment point for tongue muscles Lesser horns • Attachment point for hyoid and laryngeal ligaments © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The hyoid bone Greater horn Lesser horn Body of the hyoid Figure 7.7 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.7: Mandible and associated skull bones • Associated skull bones (continued) • Auditory ossicles • In middle ear within petrous portion of temporal bone • Conduct sound wave vibrations from tympanic membrane to hearing receptors of inner ear © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The auditory ossicles, bones associated with the skull SKULL ASSOCIATED BONES 7 FACE 14 CRANIUM 8 Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone 1 Palatine bones 2 Parietal bones 2 Nasal bones 2 Frontal bone Inferior nasal conchae 2 Zygomatic bones 2 Lacrimal bones 2 Vomer 1 Mandible 1 1 Temporal bones 2 Sphenoid 1 Ethmoid 1 Hyoid bone 1 Auditory ossicles enclosed in 6 temporal bones (see Chapter 15) Figure 7.7 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 Module 7.7 Review a. Name the foramina of the mandible. b. Describe the location and function of the auditory ossicles. c. ls your lab partner correct when she claims that the hyoid bone does not directly join (articulate with) any other bone? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.8: Fontanelles • Fontanelles • Large fibrous areas between cranial bones of infants and small children • Ease passage of head through birth canal • Allow for cranial growth to keep pace with brain growth and later fetal stages • Over time, fontanelles are replaced with sutures • Occipital, sphenoidal, and mastoid fontanelles disappear a month or two after birth • All fontanelles replaced before age 5 when brain stops growing © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.8: Fontanelles • Fontanelles • Anterior • Largest fontanelle • At intersection of frontal, sagittal, and coronal sutures • Sphenoidal • • Junction of squamous and coronal sutures Mastoid • • Junction of squamous and lambdoid sutures Occipital • Junction of lambdoid and sagittal sutures © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The anterior fontanelle (“soft spot”) and associated sutures in the skull of an infant Sagittal suture Left parietal bone Right parietal bone Anterior fontanelle Coronal suture Frontal suture Frontal bone © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Frontal suture Figure 7.8 1 The occipital fontanelle and associated sutures in a posterior view of the skull of an infant Left parietal bone Right parietal bone Sagittal suture Occipital fontanelle Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Figure 7.8 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 A lateral view of the skull of an infant Sphenoidal fontanelle Coronal suture Parietal bone Frontal bone Sphenoid Squamous suture Mastoid fontanelle Nasal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Mandible Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Figure 7.8 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 A superior view of the skull of an infant Frontal suture Frontal bone Anterior fontanelle Frontal bone Parietal bone Lambdoid suture Sagittal suture Occipital fontanelle Parietal bone Occipital bone Coronal suture Figure 7.8 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 Module 7.8 Review a. Define fontanelle. b. Identify the major fontanelles. c. What purposes do fontanelles serve? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Vertebral column • Consists of 26 bones (24 vertebrae, 1 sacrum, 1 coccyx) • Average adult length is 71 cm (28 in.) • Functions • Provides a column of support to bear weight of head, neck, and trunk • Transfers weight to lower limbs • Protects spinal column • Helps maintain upright position Animation: The Division and Curvatures of the Vertebral Column © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Spinal curves • Primary (before birth) and secondary (after birth) • Cervical curve (secondary) • • Thoracic curve (primary) • • Accommodation of thoracic organs Lumbar curve (secondary) • • Develops as infant learns to balance head on vertebrae Develops with ability to stand to balance trunk over limbs Sacral curve (primary) • Accommodates abdominopelvic organs © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The spinal curves and vertebral regions in the adult vertebral column Spinal Curves Vertebral Regions Primary curves develop before birth, and secondary curves after birth. Regions are defined by anatomical characteristics of individual vertebrae. Cervical curve (a secondary curve) Thoracic curve (a primary curve) C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 L1 Cervical (7 vertebrae) Thoracic (12 vertebrae) L2 Lumbar curve (a secondary curve) L3 Lumbar (5 vertebrae) L4 L5 Sacral curve (a primary curve) Sacral Coccygeal Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Vertebral regions (defined by anatomical characteristics of individual vertebrae) • Cervical (7 vertebrae) • Thoracic (12 vertebrae) • Lumbar (5 vertebrae) • Sacral • Coccygeal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The parts of a typical vertebra Parts of a Vertebra Articular processes Vertebral arch Vertebral body Superior view Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Parts of typical vertebra • Articular processes • Extend superiorly and inferiorly to articulate with adjacent vertebrae • Have smooth, concave surface (articular facet) • • Superior articular process • Inferior articular process Vertebral body • Transfers weight along vertebral column axis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Parts of typical vertebra (continued) • Vertebral arch • Spinous process (projects posteriorly) • Laminae (form “roof” of vertebral foramen) • Transverse processes (project laterally) • Pedicles (form sides of vertebral arch) • Vertebral foramen • Formed by vertebral body and arch © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The parts of the vertebral arch The Vertebral Arch Spinous process Vertebral foramen Laminae Transverse process Pedicles Inferior view Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Characteristics of articulated vertebrae • Intervertebral discs • • Pads of fibrous cartilage found between bodies of adjacent vertebrae Intervertebral foramina • Spaces between successive pedicles • Passage of nerves and blood vessels • Vertebral canal • Encloses spinal cord © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. A lateral view of three vertebrae Pedicle Intervertebral disc Intervertebral foramina Vertebral body Vertebral canal Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 A posterior view of two vertebrae Articular facet Superior articular process Inferior articular process Figure 7.9 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 5 Module 7.9: Vertebral column • Referencing individual vertebrae • One capital letter designator according to region • • Examples: C, T, L, S, and Co Subscript number designates relative position within region • Example: C3 = 3rd cervical vertebra © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.9 Review a. Name the major components of a typical vertebra. b. What is the importance of the secondary curves of the spine? c. To which part of the vertebra do the intervertebral discs attach? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • Cervical vertebrae • Characteristics • Smallest of vertebral column • Extend from occipital bone to thorax • Large vertebral foramen • • Spinal cord here has many axons connecting to brain Vertebral body is small and light • Only supports weight of head • Bifid (split) spinous process • Transverse foramen • • Protects vertebral arteries and veins serving brain Costal process (extends anterolaterally from body) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. A typical cervical vertebra Transverse foramen Bifid spinous process Vertebral foramen Vertebral body Transverse process Costal process Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • First two cervical vertebrae • Specialized to stabilize cranium while permitting head movement 1. Atlas (C1) (named after Greek god who holds world) • • No spinous process No vertebral body • Large round vertebral foramen 2. Axis (C2) • Prominent dens or odontoid (odontos, tooth) process of body Animation: Vertebral Column: Axis Atlas © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • First two cervical vertebrae (continued) • Articulation between occipital condyles and atlas • • Forms joint permitting “nodding yes” movement Articulation between atlas and axis • Transverse ligament binds dens to anterior arch of atlas • Forms joint permitting rotation (shaking your head “no”) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The first two cervical vertebrae: the atlas and the axis Anterior arch of atlas Atlas Dens (odontoid process) Joint that permits nodding (as in indicating “yes”) Axis Posterior arch of atlas Ligament that enables rotation (as in shaking the head to indicate “no”) Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • Last cervical vertebra (C7) • Has very robust spinous process with tubercle that can be felt through the skin • Known as vertebra prominens • Ligamentum nuchae (nucha, nape) • Stout elastic ligament extending from vertebra prominens to external occipital crest on skull • Acts like bowstring to maintain cervical curvature without muscular effort Animation: Vertebral Column: Cervical Vertebrae © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. A lateral view of the seven cervical vertebrae Vertebra prominens Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • Thoracic vertebrae • Twelve thoracic vertebrae • Body of each (moving inferior) is more robust than the one superior due to bearing of increasing weight • Each has costal facets on the dorsolateral surfaces of vertebral body that articulate with ribs • First 10 vertebrae have transverse costal facets as well • © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Ribs 11 and 12 are known as floating ribs accordingly Module 7.10: Cervical and thoracic vertebrae • Characteristics • Distinctive heart-shaped body • Smaller vertebral foramen • Long, slender, inferiorly pointing spinous process Animation: Vertebral Column: Thoracic Vertebrae © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 A typical thoracic vertebra in superior view Transverse process Spinous process Vertebral foramen Superior articular facet Superior costal facet Vertebral body Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 5 A typical thoracic vertebra in lateral view Superior costal facet Transverse costal facet Vertebral body Spinous process Inferior costal facet Transverse process Figure 7.10 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 6 Module 7.10 Review a. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens. Which bone is fractured and where is the fractured bone located? b. Examining a human vertebra, you notice that, in addition to the large foramen for the spinal cord, two smaller foramina are on either side of the bone in the region of the transverse processes. From which region of the vertebral column is this vertebra? c. When you run your finger down the middle of a person's spine, what part of each vertebra are you feeling just beneath the skin? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.11: Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx • Lumbar vertebrae • • • Five lumbar vertebrae Largest and transmit most weight Characteristics • Do not have costal facets • Have slender transverse processes • Triangular vertebral foramen • Stumpy spinous process • Superior articular processes face medially • Inferior articular processes face laterally Animation: Vertebral Column: Lumbar Vertebrae © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.11: Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx • Sacrum • Five fused vertebrae • Completely fused by ~25–30 years old • Anterior surface concave/posterior surface convex • Characteristics • Ala (bony wing extending laterally) • Base (broad superior surface) • Sacral promontory (important landmark in females) • Sacral foramina (intervertebral foramina of fused vertebrae) • Apex (narrow inferior portion) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.11: Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx • Sacrum • Characteristics (continued) • Sacral canal (passageway extending length of sacrum containing nerves and membranes of spinal cord) • Auricular surface (thickened, flattened lateral surfaces; sacral part of sacro-iliac joint) • Sacral tuberosity (roughened area dorsal to auricular surface; attachment site for ligaments of sacro-iliac joint) • Lateral sacral crest (ridge from transverse processes of fused sacral vertebrae) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.11: Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx • Sacrum • • Characteristics (continued) • Superior articular process (forms articulation with last lumbar vertebra) • Median sacral crest (ridge formed by spinous processes of fused sacral vertebrae) • Sacral hiatus (inferior opening of sacral canal) Coccyx • Three to five fused vertebrae • Begin fusing about age 2 Animation: Vertebral Column: Sacrum Coccyx © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.11 Review a. How many vertebrae are present in the lumbar region? In the sacrum? b. What structure forms the posterior wall of the pelvic girdle? c. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.12: Thoracic cage • Thoracic cage • Provides bony support to thoracic cavity walls • Protects heart, lungs, thymus, and other thoracic cavity organs • Attachment for muscles involved in 1. Respiration 2. Maintenance of vertebral column position 3. Movements of pectoral girdle and upper limbs © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.12: Thoracic cage • Thoracic cage components • Ribs • Reinforce posterior and lateral thoracic walls • Very mobile and flexible bones • Types • • • Vertebrocostal ribs (ribs 1–7) • Connect to sternum via individual costal cartilages Vertebrochondral ribs (ribs 8–10) • Connect to sternum via shared costal cartilages Floating ribs (ribs 11 and 12) • No connection to sternum • Also known as vertebral ribs © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.12: Thoracic cage • Thoracic cage components (continued) • Sternum • Forms anterior midline of thoracic wall • Three regions 1. Manubrium (superior portion that articulates with clavicles and first pair of ribs) 2. Body (attaches inferiorly to manubrium and to ribs 2–7) 3. Xiphoid process (smallest, most inferior region) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. An anterior view of the thoracic cage Jugular notch T1 1 2 3 Sternum Manubrium 4 5 Ribs Vertebrosternal ribs (ribs 1–7) 6 11 Body T11 7 Vertebrosternal ribs (ribs 8–10) 12 T12 8 9 Floating ribs (ribs 11 and 12) Xiphoid process 10 Costal cartilages Figure 7.12 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.12: Thoracic cage • Thoracic cage • Rib landmarks • Head or capitulum (attachment to vertebra) • • • • Articular facts (specific attachment points) Angle (bend connecting head to shaft) Shaft (tubular body) Typical ribs act as bucket handles • • Pushing down moves ribs inward Pulling up moves ribs outward • • Sternum moves accordingly Movements affect width and depth of thoracic cage © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior view of a representative rib (ribs 2–9) Articular facets on head Capitulum Tubercle Angle of the rib Shaft Superficial surface Costal groove Figure 7.12 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 The action of a typical rib, which can be likened to the movement of a bucket’s handle Sternum Ribs Figure 7.12 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 4 Module 7.12: Thoracic cage • Thoracic cage (continued) • Costal-vertebral articulations • Heads of ribs 2–9 articulate on two adjacent vertebrae at costal facets • Heads of ribs 1, 10, 11, and 12 articulate with individual vertebrae • Tubercular facets attach to transverse costal facts © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Superior view of a representative rib Transverse process Tubercular facet Superior articular facet Transverse costal facet Inferior articular facet Figure 7.12 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.12 Review a. How are vertebrosternal ribs distinguished from vertebrochondral ribs? b. Improper chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) can result in fractures of which bones? c. In addition to the ribs and sternum, what other bones make up the thoracic cage? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 2: Appendicular Skeleton • Learning Outcomes • 7.13 Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. • 7.14 Identify the bones of the arm and forearm, their functions, and their superficial features. • 7.15 Identify the bones of the wrist and hand, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. • 7.16 Describe the hip bones that form the pelvic girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 2: Appendicular Skeleton • Learning Outcomes • 7.17 Identify the bones of the pelvis, and discuss the structural and functional differences between the pelvis in males and the pelvis in females. • 7.18 Identify the bones of the thigh and leg, their functions, and their superficial features. • 7.19 Identify the bones of the ankle and foot, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Section 2: Appendicular Skeleton • Appendicular skeleton • Consists of bones of the limbs and supporting elements (or girdles) that connect them to trunk • 126 bones • Pectoral girdle (4) • Upper limbs (60) • Pelvic girdle (2) • Lower limbs (60) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the appendicular skeleton 206 SKELETAL SYSTEM AXIAL 80 SKELETON Clavicle 2 Scapula 2 Humerus 2 Radius 2 Ulna 2 Carpal bones 16 Metacarpal bones 10 Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal) 28 Hip bone (coxal bone) 2 Femur 2 Patella 2 Tibia 2 Fibula 2 Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal bones 10 Phalanges 28 Pectoral girdle 4 Upper limbs 60 APPENDICULAR 126 SKELETON Pelvic girdle 2 Lower limbs 60 Figure 7 Section 2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.13: Pectoral girdle • Pectoral (shoulder) girdle • Joins arm to trunk • Consists of clavicle and scapula © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The relationship of the clavicle to adjacent bones Clavicle Jugular notch Scapula Humerus Anterior view Figure 7.13 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.13: Pectoral girdle • Clavicle • Originate at superior, lateral border of manubrium • Characteristics • Sternal end • Pyramid-shaped • Articulates with acromion of scapula • Acromial end • Flatter, broader than sternal end • Rough interior surface bearing lines and tubercles © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Two views of the right clavicle Superior view MEDIAL LATERAL Acromial end LATERAL Sternal end Inferior view MEDIAL Figure 7.13 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.13: Pectoral girdle • Scapula • Body • Broad, smooth triangle • Sides • Superior border • Medial border • Lateral border • Corners • Superior angle • Inferior angle • Lateral angle © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.13: Pectoral girdle • Scapula (continued) • Subscapular fossa • Anterior surface depression • Glenoid cavity • Cup-shaped • Articulates with humerus • Scapular spine • Ridge on posterior surface © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.13: Pectoral girdle • Scapula (continued) • Supraspinous fossa (supra, above) • Infraspinous fossa (infra, below) • Acromion process • End of spine • Coracoid process • Anterior, superior to glenoid cavity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Two views of the right scapula Scapular spine Acromion Coracoid process Superior border Acromion Superior angle Supraspinous fossa Subscapular fossa Process that supports the cup-shaped glenoid cavity Lateral border Medial border Anterior view Infraspinous fossa Posterior view Inferior angle Figure 7.13 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 – 4 A lateral view of the right scapula Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Acromion Figure 7.13 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 5 Module 7.13 Review a. Name the bones of the pectoral girdle. b. How would a broken clavicle affect the mobility and stability of the scapula? c. Which bone articulates with the scapula at the glenoid cavity? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Skeleton of upper limbs includes those of arms, forearms, wrists, and hands • Arm = shoulder to elbow • Forearm = elbow to wrist Animation: Pectoral Girdle: Upper Limb © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Humerus • Head • • Proximal end that articulates with glenoid cavity (scapula) Lesser tubercle • • Smaller projection on anterior, medial epiphyseal surface Greater tubercle • Rounded projection on lateral epiphyseal surface • Establishes lateral contour of shoulder • Intertubercular groove • Between tubercles • Important for muscle attachment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Humerus (continued) • Anatomical neck • • Marks extent of joint capsule Surgical neck • • Fractures typically occur here Deltoid tuberosity • Large, rough elevation on lateral surface • Attachment of deltoid muscle • Radial groove • Crosses inferior end of deltoid tuberosity • Depression marking path of radial nerve © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Humerus (continued) • Radial fossa • • Accommodates portion of radial head Condyle • Capitulum • • Lateral surface of condyle Trochlea (trochlea, pulley) • Medial surface of condyle • Extends from olecranon fossa (posterior) to coronoid fossa (anterior) • © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. These depressions accept projections of ulna Surface features of the right humerus Posterior view Anterior view Head Greater tubercle Intertubercular groove Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Anatomical neck Surgical neck Radial groove Shaft Deltoid tuberosity Radial fossa Coronoid fossa Lateral epicondyle Capitulum © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Olecranon fossa Medial epicondyle Trochlea Trochlea Figure 7.14 1 Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Ulna and radius • Parallel bones that support forearm • In anatomical position, ulna is medial to radius • Shafts connected via interosseus membrane • Proximal radio-ulnar joint • • Radial notch on ulna with radial head Distal radio-ulnar joint • Lateral surface of ulnar head with distal end of radius © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface features of the right ulna and radius Posterior view Anterior view Trochlear notch Radial head Olecranon Coronoid process Neck of the radius Proximal radio-ulnar joint Radial notch at proximal radio-ulnar joint Radial tuberosity Ulna Radius Radius Ulna Interosseous membrane Ulnar notch Distal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head Styloid process of the radius Ulnar head Styloid process of the ulna © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.14 2 Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Ulna • Olecranon • Superior end of ulna • Point of elbow • Ulnar head • • Distal, slender, rounded end Styloid process (styloid, long and pointed) • • Posterior, lateral surface of head Radial notch • Accommodates head of radius © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Ulna (continued) • Trochlear notch • • Articulates with trochlea of humerus at elbow joint Coronoid process • Inferior lip of trochlear notch © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14: Humerus, radius, ulna • Radius • Radial head • Articulates with capitulum of humerus • During flexion, swings into radial fossa of humerus • Neck • • From radial head to tuberosity Radial tuberosity • • Marks attachment site of biceps brachii muscle Ulnar notch • • Site of articulation with ulnar head Styloid process • Distal radius that articulates with bones of wrist © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.14 Review a. Identify the bones of the arm and forearm. b. Identify the two rounded projections on either side of the elbow, and state to which bone they belong. c. Which bone of the forearm is positioned laterally while in anatomical position? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.15: Carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges • Carpus • Eight carpal bones arranged in two rows of four bones • Proximal carpal bones 1. 2. 3. Scaphoid (skaphe, boat) • Lateral border of wrist • Closest to styloid process of radius Lunate (luna, moon) • Medial to scaphoid • Articulates with radius Pisiform (pisum, pea) • 4. Anterior to triquetrum Triquetrum (triquetrus, three-cornered) • © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Articulates with disc separating ulna from wrist Module 7.15: Carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges • Carpus (continued) • Distal carpal bones 5. Trapezium (trapezion, four sided with no parallel sides) • 6. 7. 8. Lateral bone that articulates with scaphoid Trapezoid • Medial to trapezium • Proximal articulation with scaphoid Capitate (caput, head) • Largest carpal bone • Between trapezoid and hamate Hamate • © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Medial carpal bone The bones of the carpus (wrist) Proximal Carpal Bones Scaphoid Lunate Pisiform Triquetrum Right wrist and hand, anterior (palmar) view Radius Ulna I II III IV V Metacarpal bones Proximal phalanx Distal Carpal Bones Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Figure 7.15 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 Module 7.15: Carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges • Metacarpals (metacarpus, hand) • Articulate with distal carpal bones and support hand • Identified by Roman numerals I–V, from lateral to medial • Distally articulate with proximal finger bones • Phalanges • 14 phalanges per hand • Pollex (thumb) has 2 phalanges (proximal and distal) • All other fingers have 3 phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal) Animation: Pectoral Girdle: Wrist Hand © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The metacarpal bones (designated I–V) and the phalanges of the hand Radius Ulna Proximal Carpal Bones Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrum Distal Carpal Bones Pisiform Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate I V IV III II Proximal phalanx of pollex Metacarpal bones Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx of pollex Right wrist and hand, posterior (dorsal) view Distal phalanx Figure 7.15 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.15 Review a. Define phalanges. b. Name the carpal bones. c. Bill accidentally fractures his first distal phalanx with a hammer. Which finger is broken? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.16: Pelvic girdle • Pelvic girdle • Consists of paired hip bones (coxal bones) • Hip bone formed by fusion of three bones 1. Ilium 2. Ischium 3. Pubis • Acetabulum (acetabulum, vinegar cup) • Concave socket formed by all three fused bones • Articulates with head of femur • Has smooth, cup-shaped surface (lunate surface) • Has superior gap in bony rim (acetabular notch) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.16: Pelvic girdle • Ilium • Iliac spines • • Attachment of important muscles and ligaments Gluteal lines • • Mark attachment of large hip muscles Greater sciatic notch • • Passage of sciatic nerve to lower limb Iliac crest • Important ridge for muscle attachment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.16: Pelvic girdle • Ilium (continued) • Iliac fossa • • Shallow depression that supports abdominal organs and some muscle attachment Auricular surface • • Surface that articulates with sacrum Iliac tuberosity • Roughened area superior to auricular surface • Has attached ligaments that stabilize sacro-iliac joint • Arcuate line • Continuous with pectineal line of pubis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.16: Pelvic girdle • Ischium • Ischial spine • Projects superior to sciatic notch • Passage of blood vessels, nerves, and small muscle • Ischial tuberosity • Roughened projection • Supports body weight when seated • Ischial ramus • Bony extension that borders obturator foramen © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.16: Pelvic girdle • Pubis • Pectineal line • • Ridge that ends in pubic tubercle Pubic symphysis • • Connects pubic bones via fibrous cartilage pad Superior and inferior pubic rami (singular, ramus) • Bony extensions that border obturator foramen © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. A hip bone, which consists of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis Ilium A lateral view of the right hip bone POSTERIOR Ischium ANTERIOR Pubis Iliac crest Gluteal Lines Medial Anterior Anterior superior iliac spine Posterior Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Lunate surface Greater sciatic notch Acetabulum Ischial spine Ischial ramus Ischial tuberosity Acetabular notch Figure 7.16 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 – 2 A medial view of the right hip bone Ilium ANTERIOR POSTERIOR Pubis Ischium Iliac crest Iliac tuberosity Iliac fossa Auricular surface of the ilium Arcuate line of the ilium Greater sciatic notch Pectineal line Obturator foramen Superior pubic ramus Pubic symphysis Ischial ramus Inferior pubic ramus © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.16 3 Module 7.16 Review a. Describe the acetabulum. b. Which three bones fuse to make up a hip bone? c. When you are seated, which part of the hip bone bears your body’s weight? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.17: Pelvis • Consists of two hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx • Has extensive network of ligaments connecting sacrum with: • • Iliac crest • Ischial tuberosity • Ischial spine • Arcuate line Other ligaments tie ilia to lumbar vertebrae © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The structures of the pelvis Hip Bone Sacrum Ilium Coccyx Pubis Ischium L5 Iliac crest Iliac fossa Ilium Sacrum Sacro-iliac joint Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Obturator foramen Ischium Pubic symphysis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.17 1 Module 7.17: Pelvis • May be divided into: 1. True (lesser) pelvis • Encloses pelvic cavity • Superior limit extends from base of sacrum, along arcuate line and pectineal line, to pubic symphysis • = Pelvic brim • Encloses pelvic inlet • Pelvic outlet bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities, ischial spines, and inferior pubic symphysis 2. False (greater) pelvis • Consists of area enclosed by bladelike portions of ilia superior to pelvic brim © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The locations and extents of the true (lesser) pelvis (in purple) and the false (greater) pelvis Superior view Inferior view Pelvic outlet Ischial spine False pelvis Pelvic inlet Pelvic brim Pelvic outlet Figure 7.17 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.17: Pelvis • Sexual differences in pelvic structure • Most related to adaptations for childbearing • Female (compared to male) • Generally smoother and lighter with less prominent markings • Enlarged pelvic outlet • Broader pubic angle, greater than 100° • Less curvature on sacrum and coccyx • Wider, more circular pelvic inlet • Relatively broad, low pelvis • Ilia project farther laterally but not as far superiorly © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The shapes of the pelvis in females and males The pelvis of a female The pelvis of a male Female Male Ischial spine Ischial spine 100° or more 90° or less Figure 7.17 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.17 Review a. Name the bones of the pelvis. b. The pubic bones are joined anteriorly by what structure? c. How is the pelvis of females adapted for childbearing? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Skeleton of lower limb consists of: • Femur (thigh) • Patella (kneecap) • Tibia and fibula (leg) • • • Connected with interosseus membrane Metatarsal bones and phalanges (foot) Same number of bones as upper limb • Functional anatomy is different due to weightbearing properties Animation: Pelvic Girdle: Lower Limb © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Femur • Longest and heaviest bone in body • Articulates with hip at hip joint • Articulates with tibia at knee joint • Characteristics • Femoral head • Articulates with pelvis at acetabulum • Fovea capitis • • Small pit containing ligament attaching head to acetabulum Neck • Joins shaft at about 125° © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Femur (continued) • Characteristics • • Greater trochanter • Large, rough projection that extends laterally • Attachment site for large tendons Lesser trochanter • • Intertrochanteric line • • Smaller process that projects posteriorly and medially Marks edge of articular capsule on anterior femur Gluteal tuberosity • Attachment of gluteus maximus muscle © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Femur (continued) • Characteristics • Linea aspera (aspera, rough) • • Popliteal surface (poples, hollow of knee) • • Attachment of powerful hip muscles Flattened triangular area on posterior Medial and lateral condyles • Participate in knee joint at distal end • Separated by: • Patellar surface (anterior) • Intercondylar fossa (posterior) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Landmarks of the right femur Fovea capitis Neck Greater trochanter Greater trochanter Femoral head Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Intertrochanteric line Anterior view Lesser trochanter Linea aspera Posterior view Shaft Lateral supracondylar ridge Popliteal surface Adductor tubercle Patellar surface Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Medial epicondyle Medial condyle Intercondylar fossa Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Figure 7.18 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 - 2 Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Patella • Large sesamoid bone that forms in quadriceps tendon • Characteristics • Base • • Apex • • Attachment of patellar ligament (patella to tibia) Lateral facet • • Attachment of quadriceps tendon For lateral condyle of femur Medial facet • For medial condyle of femur © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The surface features of the patella Base of patella Attachment area for quadriceps tendon Lateral facet, for lateral condyle of femur Medial facet, for medial condyle of femur Attachment area for the patellar ligament, which attaches the patella to the tibia Articular surface of patella Apex of patella Anterior view Posterior view Figure 7.18 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Tibia (shinbone) • Large medial bone of leg • Characteristics • Intercondylar eminence • • Tibial tuberosity • • Attachment of patellar ligament Anterior margin • • Ridge separating lateral and medial tibial condyles Ridge beginning at tibial tuberosity, extending along anterior surface Medial malleolus (malleolus, hammer) • Medial projection of ankle that supports joint © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.18: Femur, tibia, and fibula • Fibula • Attachment of muscles that move foot and toes • Provides lateral stability to ankle joint • Characteristics • Head • • Articulates with tibia proximally Lateral malleolus • Provides lateral stability to ankle joint © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The features of the right tibia and fibula Superior tibiofibular joint Articular surface of medial tibial condyle Intercondylar eminence Lateral tibial condyle Articular surface of lateral tibial condyle Medial tibial condyle Head of the fibula Lateral tibial condyle Tibial tuberosity Head of fibula Interosseous membrane Anterior view Posterior view Anterior margin of the tibia Tibia Fibula Fibula Medial malleolus of the tibia Lateral malleolus of the fibula Lateral malleolus (fibula) Inferior articular surface © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Inferior tibiofibular joint Figure 7.18 4 Module 7.18 Review a. Identify the bones of the lower limb. b. Which structure articulates with the acetabulum? c. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears weight. Yet, when it is fractured, walking becomes difficult. Why? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Angle bones accept body weight from leg and transfer to the ground, distributing through foot bones • Need to be strong yet flexible to deal with locomotive movements Animation: Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs: Ankle and Foot © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Tarsals (7 bones) 1. Calcaneus (heel bone) • Largest of tarsal bones • Most weight transmitted from tibia to ground through it • Posterior portion is attachment site for calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon) 2. Talus • Transmits weight from tibia toward toes • Trochlea of talus bone forms articulation between tibia and talus © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Tarsals (continued) 3. Navicular • Articulates with talus and three cuneiform bones 4. Cuboid • Articulates with anterior surface of calcaneus 5–7. Cuneiform bones • Medial, intermediate, lateral © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Metatarsals • Articulate with distal surfaces of cuboid and cuneiforms and phalanges • Form distal portion of foot • Identified by Roman numerals I–V from medial to lateral • • I–III articulate with cuneiform bones • IV & V articulate with cuboid Phalanges (toe bones) • Same anatomical organization as fingers (14 bones) • Hallux (great toe) has two bones (proximal and distal) • All other toes have three bones (proximal, middle, distal) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The bones of the ankle and foot The Ankle (Tarsus) The ankle consists of seven tarsal bones. Calcaneus Talus Trochlea Navicular Cuboid Cuneiform bones Metatarsals Articulations of the cuboid and the cuneiform bones with the metatarsal bones V IV III II I Metatarsal bones (designated I–V) Proximal phalanx Phalanges Distal phalanx Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges Hallux © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 7.19 1 Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Arches of the foot • Longitudinal arch • Transfers weight between toes and calcaneus • Present because of ligaments and tendons connecting calcaneus to distal portions of metatarsals • Lateral (calcaneal) portion has much less curvature than medial (talar) portion • Therefore, medial plantar surface elevated to allow passage of inferior surface muscles, blood vessels, and nerves • Creates transverse arch © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. A lateral view of the right ankle and foot Lateral surface of the trochlea Cuboid bone Navicular Cuneiform Metatarsal bones bone bones (I–V) Phalanges Lateral view I II Attachment site for the calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon) III IV V Figure 7.19 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 A medial view of the right ankle and foot Phalanges Medial Navicular cuneiform bone bone Metatarsal bones Talus Medial view I Calcaneus Longitudinal arch Transverse arch Figure 7.19 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 2 Module 7.19: Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges • Arches of the foot (continued) • Congenital talipes equinovarus (clubfoot) • Arches fail to develop properly due to abnormal muscle development • Tibia, ankle, and foot are affected • Longitudinal arches are exaggerated • Feet turn medially and inverted • Affects 1 in 1000 births • • Twice as common in boys Prompt treatment with casts or other supports can alleviate © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 7.19 Review a. Identify the tarsal bones. b. Which foot bone transmits the weight of the body from the tibia toward the toes? c. While jumping off the back steps at his house, 10-year-old Joey lands on his right heel and breaks his foot. Which foot bone is most likely broken? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.