Download Part I – Mechanics

Part I – Mechanics
Motion in One-Dimension
I.
Motion Terminology
A. Distance
B. Displacement
C. Speed
D. Velocity
i. Average
ii. Instantaneous
E. Acceleration
F. Vector
G. Scalar
II.
Graphical Analysis of Motion
A. Position (Displacement) vs. Time Graph
B. Velocity vs. Time Graphs
C. Acceleration vs. Time Graphs
D. Moving between the Graphs
III.
Motion Under Constant Acceleration
A. Galilean Equations
B. Free Fall Problems
Motion in Two Dimensions
I.
Adding Vectors
a. Same Directions
b. Opposite Directions
c. Right Angles
d. Non-Right Angles
II.
Projectile Motion
a. Parabolic Motion
b. Motion in X-Direction
c. Motion in Y-Direction
Forces
I.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
a. 1st Law
b. 2nd Law
c. 3rd Law
II.
Static Equilibrium
III.
Non-Equilibrium
IV.
Frictional Forces
V.
Center of Mass (Gravity)
VI.
Torque
VII.
Rotational Equilibrium
Work, Power, and Energy
I.
Work
a. Work Formula
b. Conditions for Work
II.
Power
III.
Energy
a. Forms of Energy
b. Kinetic Energy
c. Potential Energy
i. Gravitational Potential Energy
ii. Elastic Potential Energy
d. Conservation of Energy
IV.
Efficiency
Momentum
I.
Momentum
a. Formula
b. Units
II.
Conservation of Momentum
a. Types of Collisions
i. Elastic
ii. Inelastic
iii. Perfectly Inelastic
b. Conservation of Momentum Formula
c. Conservation of Momentum Problem
III.
Impulse
a. Definition of Impulse
b. Impulse Momentum Theorem
c. Impulse Momentum Problems
ROTATIONAL MOTION/CIRCULAR MOTION
I.
Measuring Rotational Motion
a. Definition of Rotational Motion
b. Definition of Radian
c. Arc Length
d. Angular Displacement
e. Angular Speed
f. Angular Acceleration
g. Rotational and Linear Kinematics Equations
II.
Tangential and Centripetal Acceleration
a. Tangential Speed
b. Tangential Acceleration
c. Centripetal Acceleration
d. Total Acceleration
III.
Centripetal Force
a. Centripetal Force Definition
b. Centripetal Force Formulas
c. Inertia
IV.
Motion in Horizontal Circles
a. Examples
b. Force that holds car on track
V.
Motion in Vertical Circles
a. Examples
b. Motion at Top of Loop
c. Motion at Bottom of Loop
VI.
Ball on a Rope
a. Examples
b. Motion at Top of Loop
c. Motion at Bottom of Loop
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION and PENDULUM
I.
Simple Harmonic Motion
a. Definition
b. Examples
c. Hooke’s Law
II.
Pendulum
a. Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
b. Relationship between Potential and Kinetic Energy
c. Period of a Pendulum
d. Period of a Mass-Spring System
Part II – ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
I.
Properties of Charge
a. Conservation of Charge
b. Basic Law of Electrostatics
c. Charged is Quantized
i. Total Charge Formula
ii. Robert Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
II.
Transfer of Charge
a. Conductors
b. Insulators
c. Charge by Conduction
i. Charging a Conductor
ii. Charging an Insulator
d. Charge by Induction
i. Inducing a charge on a Conductor
ii. Inducing a charge on an Insulator
III.
Electric Force
a. Field Forces
b. Coulomb’s Law
c. Coulomb’s Constant
d. Superposition Principle
IV.
Electric Field
a. Test Charge
b. Electric Field Strength (2 formulas)
c. Electric Field Lines
d. Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines
V.
Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
a. Electric Field Inside
b. Excess charge resides on outside
c. Electric field is perpendicular to outside surface
d. Charge tends to accumulate on sharp points
e. Van de Graff Generator
VI.
Electric Potential Energy
a. Electric Potential Energy Formulas
b. Factors that affect Electric Potential Energy
i. Charge
ii. Electric field strength
iii. Position of charge
VII.
Electric Potential or Potential Difference or Voltage
a. Potential difference formulas
b. Difference between electric potential energy and electric potential
VIII. Capacitance
a. Definition of capacitance
b. Ratio of charge to potential difference
c. Parallel plate capacitor
d. Factors that produce high capacitance
IX.
Current and Resistance
a. Current
b. Conventional Current Direction
c. Types of Current
d. Resistance
e. Resistors
f. Ohm’s Law
g. Superconductors
h. Electric Power
i. Kilowatt hours
X.
Electrical Circuits
a. Schematics
b. Light bulbs
c. Series Circuits
d. Parallel Circuits
e. Kirchhoff’s Rule
f. Complex Circuits
XI.
MAGNETISM
a. Magnetic Fields
b. Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying Wire
c. Magnetic Field of a Current Carrying Soleniod
d. Magnetic Domains
e. Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field
i. Magnitude of Magnetic Field
ii. Right hand rule to find direction of magnetic force
iii. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
f. Electromagnetic Induction
i. Lenz’s Law- the magnetic field of the induced current opposes
the change in the applied magnetic field
ii. Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction
PART III- Waves and Optics
I.
Wave Properties
a. Mechanical Waves
b. Longitudinal Waves
c. Transverse Waves
d. Crest
e. Trough
f. Wavelength
g. Frequency
h. Period
i. Wave Speed
II.
Wave Interference
a. Superposition
b. Constructive Interference
c. Destructive Interference
d. Standing Waves
e. Nodes
f. Antinodes
g. Wavelengths of standing waves
i. 2L
ii. L
iii. 2/3 L
III.
The Dual Nature of Light
a. Planck – Energy comes in discrete units
b. Einstein – Extended Planck’s theory to all electromagnetic waves
(including light), stating that they sometimes behave like particles
c. Louis de Broglie – using the dual nature of light theory, he proposed
that all matter has wavelike characteristics.
i. Wavelength = constant/(mass x velocity)
ii. Patterns of constructive and destructive interference can be
detected by electron microscopes.
IV.
Sound Waves
a. Longitudinal Waves
b. Compression
c. Rarefaction
d. Frequency determines pitch
e. Speed of sound depends upon medium
f. Doppler Effect
i. As a moving car is approaching a stationary individual the
frequency appears to be greater due to relative motion.
ii. Radar uses the idea of Doppler Effect
g. Resonance – frequency of force applied matches natural frequency
V.
Light and Reflection
a. Electromagnetic Spectrum
i. Waves vary depending upon frequency and wavelength
ii. Wave speed equation
b. Reflection of Light
i. Images in flat mirrors
ii. Mirror Equation
iii. Magnification Equation
iv. Virtual Images
1. Always upright
2. Formed behind a mirror
v. Real Images
1. Always inverted
2. Formed behind a mirror
vi. Focal point
vii. Concave Mirror
1. Outside Focal Length - images are inverted, real, and
de-magnified or magnified
2. At Focal Point – image does not exist (at infinity)
3. Inside Focal Point – images are upright, virtual, and
magnified
viii. Convex Mirror
1. All images are upright, virtual, and de-magnified
2. Convenient Store Mirrors
c. Refraction of Light
i. Refraction
ii. Index of Refraction
iii. Snell’s Law
iv. Virtual Images
v. Real Images
vi. Double Convex Lenses – Converging Lenses
1. Outside focal point – images are real, inverted and
demagnified or magnified
2. At focal point – image is at infinity
3. Inside focal point – images ate virtual, upright, and
demagnified
vii. Double Concave Lenses – Diverging Lenses
1. All images upright, virtual, and demagnified
viii. Thin-Lens Equation
ix. Magnification Equation
x. Total Internal Reflection
1. Moving from higher index of refraction to lower index
of refraction
2. Critical Angle
3. Fiber Optics
d. Physical Optics
i. Dispersion – separating polychromatic light into component
wavelengths
ii. Interference
1. Coherence – two waves with identical wavelengths
maintain a constant phase relationship. Laser light
2. Producing two coherent sources of visible light through
two small slits
3. Fringes observed
4. Diffraction – the spreading of light into a region behind
an obstacle
5. Diffraction patterns resemble interference patterns
because they also result from constructive and
destructive interference. In the case of interference, it is
assumed that the slits behave as point sources of light.
For diffraction, the actual width of the slit is considered.
6. Diffraction becomes more evident as the width of the
slit is narrowed. The brightest spots appear in the
middle.
7. Diffraction occurs around the edges of all objects. You
must observe with a magnifying glass.
iii. Polarization
1. Polarization – the alignment of electromagnetic waves
in such a way that the vibrations of the electric fields in
each of the waves are parallel to each other.
2. Polarized light is produced from transmission or
reflection.
iv. Color
1. Primary Additive Colors – red, blue green
2. Primary additive colors form to produce white light.
PART IV – Heat and Thermodynamics
I.
Temperature
a. Internal Energy
b. Thermal Equilibrium
c. Temp. Conversions
i. Tf = 9/5 Tc + 32
ii. Tc = 5/9(Tf – 32)
iii. Tk = Tc + 273
d. Heat
e. Conservation of Energy Formula
i. KE + PE + Change in Internal Energy = 0
ii. Total Energy is Conserved
f. Specific Heat Capacity
i. The amount of energy needed to raise the temp. of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 degree Celsius at a constant pressure
ii.
c = Q / (m T)
iii. Units - J / (kg C)
iv. Calorimeter
1. Energy absorbed by water = Energy released by the
substance
2. Q w = Q x
g. Latent Heat
i. Energy needed for temperature increase
ii. Energy needed for phase change
iii. Graph of Temp. vs. Heat for Phase changes of water
iv. More energy needed to break bonds between particles in order
for particle to break bonds
v. Heat of fusion – energy per unit mass transferred in order to
change a substance from a solid to liquid or liquid to a solid at
constant temperature and pressure
vi. Heat of Vaporization – energy per unit mass transferred in
order to change a substance from a liquid to a vapor or from a
vapor to a liquid at constant temperature and pressure.
vii. Because gas molecules are so far apart it takes more energy to
vaporize a mass than to melt it. Therefore, heat of
vaporization is greater than heat of fusion.
viii. Latent Heat (L)– the energy per unit mass that is transferred
during a phase change of a substance J/kg
1. Q = m L
II.
Thermodynamics
a. Heat and work are transfers of energy to or from a system
b. Work done in terms of Volume change
i. Cylinder of gas compressed
ii.
W = F x D => W = P x V
iii. When volume is constant no work is done
c. First Law of Thermodynamics
i. Energy Conservation takes into account a system’s total
internal energy + the energy transferred to or from the system
to do work
ii. Change in the system’s total internal energy = energy
transferred to/from the system by heat – energy transferred
to/from the system to do work
d. Second Law of Thermodynamics
i. Some energy must always be transferred by heat to
surroundings
ii. No system totally contains all energy
e. Efficiency of an Engine
i. Never 100 % due to 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
ii. Eff = Net work done by engine / Energy added to engine
f. Entropy
i. Measure of disorder of a system
ii. Increasing Entropy (disorder) reduces the amount of energy
available to do work
iii. Entropy of the Universe increases as a natural process
iv. Second Law of Thermodynamics in terms of Entropy
1. Heat lost to surroundings because of entropy increase
2. As ice melts entropy increases
Part V – Modern Physics
I.
Quantum Mechanics
a. Birth of Quantum Mechanics
i. Glow of objects at high temperatures
ii. All objects emit E/M radiation. Infrared at low temp and
visible light at high temp. Scientist couldn’t understand why
different wavelengths at different temperatures.
iii. Blackbody Radiation – electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
blackbody, which absorbs all incoming radiation and then
emits radiation based only on its temperature
1. As temperature increases radiation emitted increased
(wavelength increased)
2. Max Plank developed formula for blackbody radiation
that agreed with results
3. Particles resonate back and forth at different
frequencies
4. Particle resonators can only absorb/emit energy at
certain discrete amounts of energy. This is due to
jumping from one quantum state to another.
5.
Energy = Plank’s Constant x Frequency
a. h = 6.63 x 10 –34 J s
b. Energy for one quantum jump
6. no change in quantum state = no energy emitted
7. Quantum Mechanics – idea that energy is in discrete
units
b. Photoelectric Effect
i. The emission of electrons from a surface that occurs when light
of certain frequencies shines on the surface
ii. Photoelectric Conflict
1. Classically – the energy of the wave increases when the
intensity increases
2. Experimentally – the energy of the wave increases when
the frequency increases
3. Albert Einstein resolves conflict (Noble Prize) by
extending Planck’s concept of quantization to E/M
waves.
a. Photons – discrete unit of light energy
b. Light of the same frequency has the same
energy.
II.
Atomic Models
a. J.J. Thompson’s Model – watermelon (electrons imbedded in
positively charged sphere)
b. Ernest Rutherford
i. Alpha particles shot at atom to find a nucleus
ii. Planetary model of the atom
iii. Electrons revolving around nucleus
iv. According to his model electrons radius would decrease
c. Atomic Spectrum
i. Not explained by Rutherford model
ii. Each gas has an emission and absorption spectrum when
voltage is supplied
iii. Nothing in Rutherford’s model accounted for each element
having a unique series of spectral lines
d. Bohr Model of Hydrogen Gas
i. 1913 Niels Bohr
ii. Contained explanation of atomic spectrum
iii. Only certain orbits are stable- never between orbits
iv. Transitions between stable orbits with different energy levels
accounts for the discrete spectral lines
v. Ground state – Bohr radius
vi. Excited state
vii. Explains color emitted from the Northern lights
viii. Scientists search for new models to explain why some states are
stable
III.
Nuclear and Particle Physics
a. Nucleus Properties
i. Mass number – no. of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
ii. Atomic number – no. of protons
iii. Neutron number – no of neutrons
iv. Isotopes – atoms of an element having the same atomic no. but
different neutron and mass no.
v. Relationship between mass and rest energy
1. Rest energy – amt of energy associated with a mass
2. mass = rest energy / (speed of light)2
3. neutrons most massive therefore stabilize nucleus
4. Binding energy – energy released when nucleons bind
together to form a stable nucleus E = mc2
b. Nuclear Reactions
i. Nuclear decay – unstable nuclei break apart
1. Natural or induced artificially
2. Radioactivity – the spontaneous emission of energy due
to nuclear decay
3. Rules for Nuclear Decay
a. Total atomic number is conserved
b. Total mass number is conserved
4. Alpha – emits He nuclei
a.
5. Beta – emits electrons or positrons
a.
6. Gamma – emits high energy photons
7. Half-Life – measures nuclear decay
a. T1/2 = 0.693/decay constant
ii. Fission and Fusion
1. Fission – heavy nucleus splits into 2
2. Fusion – light nuclei combine to form 1
IV.
Relativity
a. Einstein’s theory of relativity
i. Time depends upon observer’s motion
ii. An observer beside a moving train sees the light travel a
greater distance and measures a longer period of time interval
than the passenger does – time dilation
iii. Time dilation equation