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Transcript
APES Chapter 4 Study Guide Vocabulary Evolution- genetic changes that occur in a population over time due to 1)natural variation in genes within a population; 2) the fact that generally more organisms are produced than will survive to maturity…there is a carrying capacity; 3) those best adapted are more likely to survive; 4) characteristics that increase survival odds become more common over time due to natural selection Natural Selection- Process by which better adapted organisms are more likely to survive to reproduce and pass on their characteristics to their offspring. Over generations, characteristics that increase the chance of survival tend to become more common and those that reduce the odds of surviving to reproduce tend to become less common. Mutation- change in the genes that may be due to random copying errors or the effects of radiation or mutagenic chemicals. Community- association of different populations of organisms of different species living in an area Kingdom- broadest level of classification (unless you consider Domains Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya). Generally all life is divided into 6 kingdoms (Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Plantae, Fungi and Animalia) Succession- change in ecosystems that occur over time Primary succession- change in a community that begins in an area where there was no soil before (no community before) Secondary succession- change in the species composition that exists in an area over time when one type of community replaces another Climax community- this stage of succession has been reached when a stable and persistant community develops. It will a major disturbance like fire,hurricane, or deforestation to change the community. Pioneer Community- organisms (generally lichen) which start succession where soil did not previously exist Symbiosis- close relationships or associations between species; includes mutualism, commensalism and parasitism Mutualism- symbiotic relationship that benefits both organisms (ex coral and zooxanthellae) Commensalisms- symbiotic relationship that benefits one organism and neither harms nor helps the other organism (ex epiphytes on a tree) Parasitism- symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits by getting nourishment from another species but though it may weaken it does not generally kill it. Intraspecific competition- competition between individuals of the same species (a population) Interspecific competition- competition between individuals of different species Symbionts- partners in a symbiotic relationship Coevolution- interdependent evolution of two interacting species Predation- consumption of one organism (the prey) by another (the predator) Pathogen- a parasite that causes the disease (and perhaps though not necessarily death) of its host Competition- result of two or more species (or individuals of one species) that utilize similar resources Habitat-the environment used by a species or population Niche- description of an organism’s adaptations, habitat, use of resources and relationships with other organisms Fundamental niche- the potential habitat and resources an organism might use and the possible relationships with other organisms. Usually larger than the realized niche as an organism will usually not get to use all resources it might due to competition Realized niche- narrower than the fundamental niche; this describes an organism’s actual habitat and resources used and relationships with other organisms. It is more limited than the fundamental niche due to competition with other species. Limiting resource- resources that due to scarcity (or overabundance) restricts or limits the niche of a species. For example, in Maine light is a limiting resource for species like the quaking aspen that need abundant light. Water is a limiting resource in soil that is too wet to support certain plants that prefer drier soil. Winter snow depth is a limiting resource for white-tailed deer as deep winter snows reduce survival rates and reproductive rates. Resource partitioning- species that have similar niches will often reduce interspecific competition by not utilizing the resources in exactly the same way. For example, see p 82 fig 4.16 warblers use of a tree when foraging for insects. Keystone species- species that have an effect on an ecosystem that far exceeds the effect one would expect based on the abundance of the species Species richness- biodiversity Ecotone- transition area between two ecosystems Ecosystem services- benefits ecosystems provide for people including air purification, water purification; soil formation; carbon storage … 1. What factors led to the extirpation (local extinction) of gray wolves in the lower 48 states? Federal predator control programs….shot, trapped, poisoned, snared 2. What state in the lower 48 did not lose all their gray wolves by the 1960s? ? (Actually there were two states as a population of wolves survived on Isle Royale in Michigan. Name the other state.) Minnesota 3. Describe how the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming affected Yellowstone ecosystems. Reduced elk population which were too high leading to starvation during winters and overgrazing; eased grazing pressure on aspen, willow, cottonwoods etc has allowed plants to regenerate and led to increased plant diversity and improved plant growth ; herbivores such as beaver and snowshoe hare have increased as food supply increased due to reduced competition from elk; small predators such as foxes, badgers and marten have increased in numbers; coyote populations have dropped sharply resulting in an increase in small mammals such as chipmunks, ground squirrels as well as pronghorn antelope whose fawns were preyed upon by coyotes; Scavenger populations (magpies, eagles, ravens, wolverines and bear) have increased as they feed on remains from wolf kills; 4. What steps were taken to reduce the opposition for the reintroduction of wolves by ranchers? Yellowstone pop was classified as experimental instead of endangered so ranchers could kill wolves that attacked livestock. Defenders of Wildlife reimbursed ranchers for the value of livestock lost to wolf predation. (Also..tho not in book… ranchers were paid a financial reward for any wolf dens on their property.) 5. Evolution by natural selection is based on four observations about organisms. Identify these. -overproduction…more organisms are born than will survive to maturity or are needed to replace their parents -variation….individuals of a species exhibit variations that lead to some individuals being more likely to survive than others limits on population growth….resources such as food, space and water limit how many organisms can survive in an area. Disease and predators also limit pop growth -differential reproductive success…..individuals whose characteristics increase their chances of surviving are more likely to reproduce and pass on their favorable traits to their offspring 6. Name the six kingdoms and give an example of an organism in each kingdom. Archaea- anaerobic prokaryotes (no distinct nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane or other organelles surrounded by membranes) found in hot springs , hydrothermal vents and in low oxygen environments Bacteria- all other prokaryotes includes some that cause disease, important decomposers, some that are photosynthetic…. Protista- simple Eukaryotes that are often unicellular or at least simple multicellular organisms; includes algae, slime molds, water molds, protozoans such as paramecium, rotifers… Plants- complex, multicellular Eukaryotes that can make their own food Animals- complex, multicellular Eukaryotes that eat other organisms (are consumers) and digest food inside their bodies Fungi- generally complex, multicellular Eukaryotes that secrete digestive enzymes onto their food and then absorb predigested nutrients 7. Give an example of primary succession. Lichens growing on bare rock (or grasses on sand dunes) 8. Give an example of secondary succession. Conversion of old field to woods 9. Is an old field in Maine a climax community? Defend your answer. No, a climax community is a stable and persistent community. An old field will eventually be replaced with shrubs and fast-growing trees, then finally with a forest. 10. Give an example of the organisms you would find in a pioneer community. Lichens on rock (or grasses on sand dunes) 11. Which occurs faster, primary succession or secondary succession? Why? Secondary as no soil yet exists in primary 12. Give an example of mutualism. Relationship between pollinators and the flowers they pollinate; interdependence between reefbuilding coral animals and the zooxanthellae (algae living inside the coral animals); mycorrhizae (associations between fungi and the roots of plants) 13. Give an example of commensalism. Tropical trees and epiphytes; silverfish (insects) that march with army ants and find food stirred up by ants 14. Give an example of parasitism. Tapeworms; ticks, mosquitoes, fleas… 15. Describe one example of a plant defense against herbivores. Milkweed toxins; thick wax on leaves; thorns; leathery leaves; hairy leaves 16. Give an example of interspecific competition. Competition for food between different species of birds at a feeder or between moose and deer for browse 17. Is interspecific competition a biotic factor or abiotic factor? Biotic factor 18. Discuss some of the factors that should be included when describing an organism’s niche. Habitat, how the abiotic environment affects it and is affected by it; what it eats; what eats it… (a complete description of the resources it uses, its adaptations and its lifestyle) 19. Which is generally broader, an organism’s fundamental niche or its realized niche? Fundamental niche is larger 20. If two species compete for similar resources and one of the species is removed, which is likely to change for the remaining species, its fundamental niche or its realized niche? Realized niche 21. Explain how global warming could affect an organism’s limiting resource. An extended growing season may allow a species of plant enough time for seeds to be produced; a warmer winter may allow species that are limited by minimum winter temperatures (deer ticks for example) 22. Explain what is meant by the principle of competitive exclusion. No two species occupy exactly the same niche in the same place at the same time. 23. Give an example of resource partitioning. Resource partitioning will reduce competition between species. For example, insect-eating warblers may specialize in different parts of the tree some spending most of their time in the upper canopy, some close to the trunk, some in the lower canopy…. 24. Explain why wolves are considered to be keystone species. Their presence has a dramatic effect on biodiversity and ecosystem health. Their importance is disproportionate to their biomass. 25. Describe several factors that are associated with high species richness (biodiversity). Ecotones (edge effects); abundance of potential ecological niches; geographic isolation; dominance of one species over others; habitat stress; geologic history 26. Describe several examples of ecosystem services. Forests purify air and water, produce and maintain soil, store carbon, provide wildlife habitat, offer wood and recreation for humans (see table 4.1 on page 84) 27. Explain why species richness (biodiversity) has changed dramatically in Lake Victoria in recent years. The 2nd largest freshwater lake in East Africa was home to about 400 sp. Of cichlids. The Nile perch was introduced into the lake to help fishermen and stimulate the economy but by 1985 cichlid pops had crashed due to predation by Nile perch and pollution including sedimentation resulting from deforestation. Nile perch pops appeared to have peaked and are now in decline. Some of the cichlid pos have started to recover. 28. Describe one possible explanation for the decrease in sea otter populations along the coast of Alaska. Drop in fish stocks caused by overfishing and/or climate change caused seal and sea lion pops to drop. This caused orcas which normally feed on seals and sea lions to turn to sea otters. 29. Why are sea otters classified as keystone species? They feed on sea urchins. W/out the otters, sea urchins decimate kelp forests which are habitat for many species. Their importance is disproportionate to their biomass.