Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Jewish views on evolution wikipedia , lookup
Hamburg Temple disputes wikipedia , lookup
The Reform Jewish cantorate during the 19th century wikipedia , lookup
Supersessionism wikipedia , lookup
Jewish religious movements wikipedia , lookup
Jewish views on sin wikipedia , lookup
Pardes (Jewish exegesis) wikipedia , lookup
Origins of Rabbinic Judaism wikipedia , lookup
Index of Jewish history-related articles wikipedia , lookup
Part One: Jewish Culture Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible Before proceeding to discuss the Holocaust, we will first look at what it meant to be a Jew and what Jewish culture was. Doubtless as among all groups of persons and in any culture, there were ‘bad’ people and cultural imperfections, but this chapter will focus on the positive side. This is not a distortion. Human beings and their culture are fundamentally good. Indeed, Jewish culture is much more demanding in its ethical standards than most, and not afraid to admit and acknowledge wrongdoing. In this it is a model that many other peoples can learn from. The story takes us back to over 4,000 years ago. For the first half of this period we have one of the most remarkable literary achievements in the world: the Jewish Bible Torah (Law), Neviim (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). In this chapter we shall present a sketch of the history that lies behind the Bible and then examine the book itself according to the parts distinguished by Jewish writers. Since the Bible has an intimate relationship with festivals, the chapter will also set out the chief festivals observed by Jews. Finally, we will look at the places of worship where Jews meet, their synagogues. Biblical History The term ‘Jew’ comes from the country ‘Judah’, which is named after the son of one of the patriarchs. An earlier name for the people, found in Egyptian records, is Hebrew and this is the name still given to their literary language. While remembering that the Biblical account is not history in the modern sense of the term – it does not try to set out an objective account in chronological order of everything that happened – it is nonetheless remarkable in early literature for its avoidance of myth and legend. According, then, to the sparse account handed down, the ancestor of the nation is an Iraqi sheepfarmer, Abraham, who feels called by his personal god to leave his ancestors’ lands and travel across the fertile crescent by way of the Tigris and Euphrates and into the land now called Israel. Abraham’s family still keep their roots with their relatives, going back to find brides from among them, but in the time of his grandchildren, they move into Egypt. Here they increase in numbers for some four centuries, until they are put to work making the pyramids. Resentful of the slave-labour, they leave Egypt and join up with other ‘relatives’ who have remained in the more remote parts of ‘Israel’. Coming together 1 Holocaust Sketches they are able to overthrow the urban communities in the area and establish their own kingdom after some hundred years of strife. The year 1000 BCE is the time of King David, who establishes Jerusalem as his capital city, plans a temple there and lays the foundation for the liturgical life of Judaism. The kingdom flourishes under his son and the temple is built, but after the death of his son, it divides into two: in the north Israel and in the south Judah. Both kingdoms are caught between more powerful neighbours, Egypt in the south and Syria/Babylon/Persia in the north. The northern kingdom falls first, in 721 BCE; a hundred years later, in 587 BCE, the south also falls. The temple is destroyed and it looks as if the culture is wiped out. But in this moment of crisis, efforts, which had already begun, to commit the culture to writing are intensified. It is a period of reflection and editing that is responsible for the basic shape of the Bible that we have today. In 583 BCE Persia allows Judah to re-establish itself, with a new temple, but no king. Politically the small state tries to cut itself off from the surrounding culture, developing its religious and ethical identity. While successful to a degree, it cannot match the power of Macedonian conquest and the Greek culture that comes with it. Again the temple is destroyed, but again the dispersed Jews reflect on their experience, translating the Bible, now increased in size, into Greek and thus engaging in dialogue with the dominant culture. Within Judah religious revival is possible but political control slips into the hands of the Romans. The next major turning-point is the claim by Jesus of Nazareth and his followers that he is the Messiah. This leads many Jews to become his followers (Christians) and thus begins a new chapter: Christianity. Other Jews do not accept him as the Christ but their life too is radically changed when the Romans finally destroy the temple in 70 CE, leaving only the lower wall (the weeping wall) in place. Tanach1 By this time the Jews had assembled their sacred books in what is known in English as the Jewish Bible and in Hebrew as ‘Torah’, ‘Neviim’ and ‘Ketuvim’ (The Law, Prophets and Writings). The first letters of the three parts are often joined to form the acronym: Tanak or Tanach. Hence the Hebrew Bible is known in Hebrew as the Tanach. 1 This section on the Tanach and the following one on Festivals are based on Trepp, Leo, Die Juden: Volk, Geschichte, Religion, Wiesbaden: Maria Verlag, 2006, 212~250; 342~374. Biblical quotations are from the Jerusalem Bible, London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1966. 2 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible The Torah is the most sacred part of the Tanach. Each year opens with the reading of the first book and closes with the last words of the fifth book so that the whole five books are read throughout the year. Torah Bereshit In the Beginning [Genesis] introduces the key theological themes of creation, sin and redemption and recounts the history of Abraham and the patriarchs; Shmot Departure from Egypt [Exodus] introduces Moses and the covenant God makes with the people (the ten commandments); Wajiqra And He called [Leviticus] gives the rules for the priests and calls on the whole people to be holy as God is holy; Ba-Midbar In the desert [Numbers] recounts preparations for entering the promised land; Devarim Words [Deuteronomy] is set as a speech by Moses and calls for obedience to God and observance of the feastdays. Neviim In the synagogue today only extracts from this part of the Bible are read aloud. It is divided into two parts: Earlier Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel 1 and 2, Kings 1 and 2 Later Prophets: Great prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezechiel Small Prophets: Hose‘a, Joel, Amos, Obadia, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habaquq, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zacariah, Malachi. The division between great and small simply refers to the length of the books. The name ‘prophet’, ‘Nabi’ in Hebrew means “One who is called by God”. In fact the section named ‘earlier prophets’ recounts the history of the people from the time of Moses until the destruction of the monarchy in the 6th Century BCE. Samuel 1 and 2 are noteworthy for the presentation of King David, the model king and Messiah of Israel and Judah. Kings 1 is notable for the stories about Elijah, the archetype of the prophet. 3 Holocaust Sketches Ketuvim Tehillim Praises [Psalms] comprises 150 poems, many used in the temple liturgy itself. In the temple particular psalms were assigned to each day and this practice continues in the synagogue today. Ps 92 is read on the Sabbath2; Ps 113~8 the Hallel is read on feastdays3; Ps 6 is read everyday and the words “Good and merciful God, I have sinned before you” are added.4 Masali [Proverbs of Solomon] and Job are wisdom books. Shir ha-Shirim The Great Song of Solomon [Song of Songs] is the first of the Five Scrolls. It is read at Passover, in the Spring, as a celebration of God’s love for the world and human beings.5 Ruth is the Second Scroll and is read at Shavuot (Pentecost), which is the harvest festival.6 Eicah The Lamentations is the Third Scroll and is read on the day commemorating the destruction of the temple, which generally falls in July or August;7 Qoheleth The Preacher is the Fourth Scroll and is read at Sukkoth, the Feast of Tents. Its opening refrain “Vanity of vanities; all is vanity” expresses the emptiness of winter. Esther is the Fifth Scroll and is read at Purim, the Feast of the Deliverance of the Jews, and tells how the Jews were saved from a plot to massacre them.8 Ps 92 has a note, which reads ‘for the Sabbath’. It opens with the lines: “It is good to give thanks to the Lord, to play in honour of your name, Most High, to proclaim your love at daybreak and your faithfulness all through the night.” The psalm is one of joy in God. 3 Ps 118 in particular is noticeable for its opening lines of praise: “Give thanks to the Lord for he is good, for his love is everlasting!” 4 Ps 6 opens with a plea for God’s mercy: “Lord do not punish me…” This becomes a prayer for rescue: “Come back, Lord, rescue my soul.” The psalmist is worn out with grief and attacked from all sides. Finally, he/she acknowledges that the Lord will hear his/her prayer: “The Lord has heard my petition; the Lord will accept my prayer.” 5 The Song of Songs is a series of love poems, which are traditionally interpreted as an allegory of God’s love for Israel. The second poem is particularly apt for Spring: “Come then, my love, my lovely one, come. For see, winter is past, the rains are over and gone. Flowers appear on earth. The season of glad songs has come, the cooing of the turtledove is heard in our land.” (Song 2: 11~12). 6 The key part of Ruth relates how Boaz befriends and later marries Ruth at harvest time. 7 There are five poems elaborately constructed in alphabetical sequence. They were written in the Holy Land after the Temple was destroyed in 587 BCE and were used in the liturgy performed on the ruined site. 8 The story is set in Persia. The earliest historical reference to the book is in 160 BCE. 2 4 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible Finally the Hebrew Bible includes Daniel (but not those parts that were only preserved in Greek by Jewish communities in Egypt), Ezra and Nehemia and Chronicles.9 Festivals All but one of the Jewish festivals are mentioned in the Tanach. 10 The exception is Hanuka, the Festival of Lights, which commemorates the restoration of the temple after it had been desecrated by Syro-Greek rulers in 167 BCE. The Jewish year is a lunar year and hence ten days out of step with the solar year. A leap month is added every seven years to correct the calendar. The year begins with the New Year, which like the ancient Chinese New Year occurs in the autumn. The ram’s horn summons the believers to prayer on New Year’s eve. They return again the next morning, the men dressed in the white robes in which they will be buried. The next day is a day of fasting. The New Year stress on death, repentance and fasting is intended to remind the people that all comes from God’s mercy. The New Year memorial reaches its climax nine days later in the Day of Atonement. This is a day for a 24-hour fast. The people pray that God will open the door of his mercy to allow them to enter in. It is one of the holiest days in the calendar. Hosea 14 is read on New Year’s Day and on the Day of Atonement.11 Its message of repentance is seen as a reminder that the New Year is a time to amend one’s life and begin again. On the afternoon of the Day of Atonement the Book of Jonah is read, as it proclaims the mercy of God in the face of the people’s repentance.12 The Feast of Tents commemorates the period after the people had been delivered from Egypt but before they had entered the Promised Land. It is a time in the desert when the people build huts in their gardens and live there for a week. 9 Other Books preserved only in Greek are Ecclesiasticus, Tobit and Judith. While the Hebrew Book of the Maccabees are accepted as part of Jewish literature but not part of the Tanach. 10 For a guide to the dates of the Jewish festivals during the holocaust, see the following table. 11 “Israel, come back to the Lord your God; your iniquity was the cause of your downfall. Provide yourself with words and come back to the Lord. Say to him, ‘Take all iniquity away so that we may have happiness again and offer you our words of praise…” (Hosea 14: 2~3). 12 Jonah is an allegorical tale written around the 5th century BCE. It proclaims salvation for all. Indeed, the most likeable characters in the tale are the non-Jewish sailors, who finally are forced to throw Jonah into the sea, where he is rescued by a whale, and the people and animals of a great pagan city, who all repent. 5 Holocaust Sketches Table of Major Jewish Feasts 1940~194513 Hebrew Name English Name 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Fast of Esther Sat 23 March Wed 12 March Mon 2 March Sat 20 March Wed 8 March Mon 26 February Purim Deliverance of the Jews Sun 24 March Thurs 13 March Tues 3 March Sun 21 March Thurs 9 March Tues 27 February Pesach Passover Tues 23 April Sat 12 April Thurs 2 April Tues 20 April Sat 8 April Thurs 29 March Last Day of Passover Mon 29 April Fri 18 April Wed 8 April Mon 26 April Fri 14 April Wed 4 April Shavuot Pentecost Wed 12 June Sun 1 June Fri 22 May Wed 9 June Sun 28 May Fri 18 May Tisha B’Av Destruction of the Temple Tues 13 August Sat 2 August Thurs 23 July Tues 10 August Sat 29 July Thurs 19 July Rosh Hashana New Year Thurs 3 October Mon 22 September Sat 12 September Thurs 30 September Mon 18 September Sat 8 September Yom Kippur Day of Atonement Sat 12 October Wed 1 October Mon 21 September Sat 9 October Wed 27 September Mon 17 September Sukkoth Feast of Tents Thurs 17 October Mon 6 October Sat 26 September Thurs 14 October Mon 2 October Sat 22 September Simchat Torah Joy in the Torah Thurs 24 October Mon 13 October Sat 3 October Thurs 21 October Mon 9 October Sat 29 September Hanuka Festival of Lights Wed 25 December Mon 15 December Fri 4 December Wed 22 December Mon 11 December Fri 30 November The last day of the Feast of Tents is known as Simchat Torah, rejoicing in the Torah. On that day the Torah scrolls are taken around the synagogue in joyful procession. The reading is that of the last passage of the fifth and last book of the Torah, recounting the death of Moses. It is immediately followed by the reading of the first words of Genesis, to indicate that a new cycle of reading has begun. In this way the whole Torah is read each year.14 Hanuka is a joyful festival of eight days. A special eight-branch candlestick with a ninth candle in front is used. The ninth candle is used to light each of the 13 This table is set out using the Western calendar months rather than the Hebrew months, for the convenience of the reader. The information has been compiled from http://www.timeanddate.com (accessed 16 March 2007). 14 The Torah ends, “Since then, never has there been such a prophet in Israel as Moses, the man the Lord knew face to face…” (Dt 34:10~12). The opening is well-known: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.” (Gn 1: 1). 6 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible eight until by the last day all eight are alight. In fact traditionally oil was used rather than candles. Children in Purim Costume at the S.M. Gurewicz Gymnasium in Vilna 193315 The feast of Purim is preceded by a day of fasting to commemorate the fasting of Esther. On the day itself people give each other gifts as a sign of 15 Salamander, Rachel, Die Jüdische Welt von Gestern: 10 Bildpostkarten, Vienna: Christian Branstätter, 1993. 7 Holocaust Sketches friendship. During the reading of the book of Esther, children shake wooden rattles every time the name of Haman is mentioned. It is he who plotted to kill all the Jews in the Persian Empire. Passover is celebrated in the Spring. It recalls the day when God saved the Hebrews from Egypt and is thus one of the defining moments of Jewish religion. Since Biblical times it has been combined with a celebration of Spring. The high point of the feast is the solemn meal at home. The table is laid out with eight symbolic objects. In first place is the Haggadah or account of the departure from Egypt as recounted in the Bible (Ex 12). Next to it is a cup, which will be filled with wine four times as a reminder of the four saving actions of God noted in Ex 6:6~7: I will free (hozeothi) you of the burdens the Egyptians lay upon you; I will release (hizzalthi) you from slavery to them; and with my arm outstretched and my strokes of power, I will deliver (noalthi) you; I will adopt (laqachthi) you as my own people, and I will be your God. A second cup is placed for Elijah, the prophet who is to come again and prepare the way for the Messiah.16 The Christian Bible’s Old Testament ends with the relevant verse from Malachi: Know that I am going to send you Elijah the prophet before my day comes, that great and terrible day… (Mal 3:23) At the Passover meal, this Elijah cup stands for the salvation of all nations, not just the Jews. It is not drunk because that time has not yet come. At the top end of the table three loaves of unleavened bread, called Matzot, are placed to represent the Priests, Levites and the Israelites as a whole, the three groups of Jews in Biblical times. Next to the bread is a lamb chop, which recalls the paschal lamb of the first Passover. It is not eaten because since the destruction of the Temple in 70 BCE there are no longer any animal sacrifices in Judaism. Next to it is an egg, which is also not eaten, and which recalls new birth.17 A sprig of green and a dish of salt water are placed next to the bread, recalling the tears of the Hebrew slaves in Egypt and the parting of the Red Sea, by which they left on dry ground. Finally, there are bitter herbs, again a sign of slavery, and Charosset, a mixture of 16 Christians believe that John the Baptist was the forerunner of the Messiah and came in the spirit of Elijah, cf. Mt 17: 12~13 Jesus said, “I tell you that Elijah has come already and they did not recognise him but treated him as they pleased; and the Son of Man will suffer similarly at their hands. The disciples understood then that he had been speaking about John the Baptist.” Elijah has a very important place in Judaism. For instance, at a circumcision, an empty seat is reserved for him as here at the Passover meal. 17 In Christian tradition the egg has become the Easter egg, recalling Christ’s resurrection from the tomb. 8 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible nuts, apples, wine and cinnamon, which recalls the mortar they had to mix to make bricks for the pyramids. Passover celebrations last eight days. At this time the readings in the synagogue include Ezechiel’s vision of the resurrection of the dry bones (Ez 37:1~14), passages from Isaiah recalling God’s leading the people into freedom (Is 12: 1~2, 6)18 and the Song of Songs. The first and last days of Passover are both major festivals. In Israel today, six days after the last day of Passover, there is a day of Commemoration of the Holocaust and Resistance. The day is chosen in honour of the Warsaw uprising, which took place during Passover week. Seven weeks (ie. 7 x 7) after Passover, the Feast of Weeks is celebrated. On that day the Ten Commandments are read as well as Ezechiel’s vision of God’s glory (Ez 1) and the beautiful tale of Ruth. The Commemoration of the Destruction of the Temple recalls the destruction both of the first and second temples. It is a day of fasting and mourning. In the synagogue all hangings are removed from the Torah shrine and lectern. The Lamentations are read on the vigil and the following morning sorrowful songs recalling persecution throughout the ages are sung. However, it is also believed that the Messiah will be born on this day; in the midst of death there is always hope in God’s power to save. Apart from these major feasts, one must not forget the important weekly feast, the Sabbath. This, the seventh day of the week, falls on Saturday in the Christian version of the calendar. As with other festivals it begins on the vigil of the previous evening (Friday). It is a day set apart for God though the strictness of its observance varies from group to group. The Synagogue The destruction of the temple by the Romans led to two new developments for Judaism. Some Jews accepting Jesus as the Messiah embraced all nations into their assembly (in Greek/Latin ecclesia or Church). The Jerusalem temple was no longer necessary because it was replaced by Jesus himself. Liturgical action was thus the remembrance and re-enactment of what Jesus had done. It was carried out in private homes, at the shrines of martyrs and later in public buildings, churches. “That day, you will say: I give thanks to you, Lord, you were angry with me but your anger is appeased and you have given me consolation. See now, he is the God of my salvation. I have trust now and no fear, for the Lord is my strength, my song. He is my salvation.” (Is 12: 1~2); “Cry out for joy and gladness, you dwellers in Zion, for great in your midst is the holy one of Israel.” (Is 12: 6). 18 9 Holocaust Sketches Those Jews who did not accept Jesus also learnt to live without the temple. Since there had always only been one temple in Jerusalem (Israel had had a temple in Samaria but it was razed earlier), Jews were accustomed to meeting in Gathering Places (Synagoge in Greek) where the Bible texts were kept and read, parts were sung and sermons were given, interpreting the texts for the congregation. The disappearance of the temple thus led to a development of the synagogue as the focus of the community. Just as Christianity could cope with dispersal from Jerusalem, so too the non-Christian Jews had the synagogue as the instrument which enabled them to form communities no matter where they lived. Few medieval synagogues survive, but in the town of Sopron in Hungary, not far from Vienna, a medieval synagogue has been restored.19 It can give us some idea of what a synagogue would have been like during early times. It was set back from the main road, as all synagogues were, because the Christians did not want the Jewish synagogue to be too visible, a sign of prejudice. One enters through a narrow passage on the north side. The main hall is to the left, down three steps, recalling Ps 130: “Out of the depths have I cried to you, O Lord.” In the centre is a hexagonal lectern (bima) from which the readings are given. The Torah scrolls are kept in the Aaron which is on the east wall and reached by three steps up.20 The cantor stood near the south-east corner against the east wall. The west wall has window slits in it. On the other side of this wall is a long low room where the women sit. The three window slits provide an opportunity for them to see the Aaron and the bima. Their room is set above the height of the main hall. Sopron is one of the earliest examples of a separate prayer room for women. In later synagogues the women often sat in the balcony that ran round the main hall. In the courtyard outside, to the north, is the ritual bathhouse (mikhwe or Tuckhaus in German). Women were obliged to wash three times after each menstruation and after child birth. Theoretically the water should be flowing water and reach a depth of 1.2 m though hot water could be added to this natural source. In Amsterdam the Grand Synagogue collected rainwater into its two baths, which were so constructed that the water naturally reached the required height. Given that European Christians did not wash the Jews were far more advanced in matters of 19 On the synagogue of Sopron see Ferenc, Dávid, Sopron: Ó-Zsinagóga, Budapest: Cartographia, 1994. 20 The shape of the bima and the number of steps up to the Aaron could vary. A photo of the Great Synagogue in Amsterdam taken in 1935 shows a square bima and six steps up to the Aaron. See van Voolen, E. (ed.), Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam, ’s-Gravenhage: SDU, 1988, 28. 10 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible hygiene than the Christians. 21 In medieval Europe Jewish baths outnumbered synagogues, though few now survive. Next to the synagogue was a house for the warden and a hostel for travellers. The synagogue in Sopron would have been used by some 10 to 16 households. One of them became rich enough to build another, private synagogue not far away. It was indeed not uncommon for several synagogues to be built close together. Amsterdam had four: the Great Synagogue (built in 1681) was used by the leading Jews; the Upper Room (1685) and Third Room (from 1700) were for the ordinary people; whilst the New Synagogue (1752) was built to cope with a further increase in the Jewish population.22 Synagogues needed leaders and some guide as to orthodoxy in disputed matters. This was provided by rabbis, whose task it was to interpret the texts for their congregation whilst maintaining tradition. In the course of history the balancing act of tradition and interpretation has not been easy. Indeed, on the eve of the holocaust, Judaism was by no means a monolithic entity. Yet, the duty of interpreting texts and relating them to daily life, led Judaism to develop exegesis, hermeneutics and legal procedures. With law as the main way to regulate social life, application and interpretation of law became an important part of Jewish life. In the next chapter we will examine how Judaism developed in Europe and formed a new European Yiddish culture. Features of Jewish Religion Jewish culture contributed at least three major elements to world culture: monotheism, combination of religion and ethics and the idea of linear time. Abraham felt called by his god to leave his home. He worshipped one God but probably still had the idea that his god was only one among many. The growth of Hebrew religious consciousness, gradually led to the realisation that there could only be one God. The so-called other ‘gods’ were either partial understandings of this one God or else simply not God at all. The prohibition on images of God, on statues, and the exclusive worship of one God was something which needed to be upheld against tendencies to syncretism or accommodation with the multifarious gods of neighbouring peoples. 21 It is told how astonished Mozart was on visiting England and finding that people washed there once a week, something unthinkable even in eighteenth century Austria. This information comes from the exhibition at Mozart’s house in Salzburg. 22 See van Voolen, E. (ed.), Joods Historisch Museum Amsterdam, ’s-Gravenhage: SDU, 1988, 25. 11 Holocaust Sketches This one God was considered ‘holy’, a notion which implied that God was fundamentally different from anything or anyone in the world. This led to the idea of creation, that all things which existed depended for their existence on the will of God. The holiness of God had profound implications for social life as well. It had to be lived out in daily customs. Most famous of these was the Sabbath, the day of rest or holiness dedicated to God. But the notion of holiness as a distinctive otherness pervaded all levels of life, for instance in dietary rules that forbade the eating of pork. It also implied that the Jewish people saw themselves in relation to other peoples as specially chosen, as holy. Monotheism is carried on by Christianity and by Islam. It may be that other religions too have had a sense of one God above others but only in the Judaic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) is this sense of monotheism so clear-cut. The sense of being a holy people was also taken up by Christians and Moslems, but neither of these religions were ever so bound to one particular people as was Judaism. While Islam, for instance, developed among Arabs, it soon spread to Berbers, Turkic peoples, Chinese and later among south-east Asians, making Indonesia the largest Islamic state today. Christianity too no longer saw itself bound to its Jewish founders and embraced all nations. The Jews, however, retained their sense of being a holy nation, a chosen people, among all the nations of the world. Indeed, this sense of identity is so strong that it has enabled them to hold together even without political power. A second important element in Judaism is the union of religion and ethics. In the Ten Words given by God to Moses and known by Christians as the Ten Commandments, the first three are devoted to God and the last seven to inter-human relationships. Indeed, in the course of history critics of contemporary worship and politics, known as Nabi in Hebrew or ‘Those who speak out’ in Greek, prophets, (the term is poorly translated into Chinese as ‘those who know beforehand’), took ethical conduct as the standard by which to judge true religion. In modern English the ceremony for worshipping God even in Christianity, is referred to as ‘service’, and the word must be understood as including service both to God and to other human beings. The two are inseparable. Again this element was maintained by Christianity and Islam. Both developed social service and care for the marginalised in society, typified as the widow and orphan. While it is true that other religions, such as Buddhism for instance, have also highly developed ethical norms, the intimate combination of ethics and religious worship is a special feature of the Jewish tradition. 12 Chapter One: Judaism and the Bible Finally, Judaism broke with Egyptian or Greek patterns of cyclical time. In particular with the political failure of the monarchy, Judaism became a religion oriented in expectation of a future leader. This leader was known as the Anointed One. At the time of David, anointing with oil was the sign of special selection and hence the term, the Anointed One (Messiah) was synonymous with that of the King (Melek). With the failure of the kings, the ideal became more spiritualised, sometimes understood as a worldly political figure, sometimes as a bringer of spiritual revival. In whatever form, Judaism became oriented towards the future. History had a meaning as development and progress. It was not simply a matter of repetition or harking back to a golden age in the past. The golden age, the time of the Messiah, was in the future. While some Jews believed that Jesus of Nazareth was indeed this Messiah (Christos in Greek), this idea of looking forward to the future was still retained in Christianity, only now it was understood as awaiting the Second Coming of the Messiah. Islam, Judaism, waiting for the Messiah, and Christianity, waiting for the second coming, all retained the idea that history was linear, progressive and that the future held more promise than the past. In secularised versions, these ideas have given rise to all kinds of creative thought from evolution to political liberalism and Marxism. Indeed, Saul Friedländer even talks about Nazism as a form of redemption philosophy, the idea that once the world was rid of the Jews, it would be a better place. Needless to say he totally disagrees with such a perverse idea. Indeed, many of these secularised versions are unworthy of their religious roots. The Jews also had another unique feature in their culture: self-criticism. Most nations like to recall their heroes and sages and boast of their success in battle. The Jewish Bible is the most self-critical work in the whole cultural and literary history of humankind. It castigates the Jews as sinners, as unrepentant, as a hopeless case. Even heroes such as King David are shown to be adulterers and power-hungry (promoting a census so that he can boast of the size of his kingdom). And yet, they believe God has not rejected them. The Bible is a call to turn again (repent), to come back to God, who is merciful as well as holy. In thus publicly acknowledging their inadequacy, the Jews thus demonstrate an honesty that puts all other peoples to shame.23 23 We need only look back to the readings assigned for the festivals. As noted above everyday Ps 6 is read with an addition by which the person praying acknowledges he/she is a sinner. Indeed what other nation will celebrate New Year with these words: “Lord, do not punish me in your rage, or reprove me in the heat of your anger.” The sincerity and humility that can be seen here are testimony to the greatness of Israel. 13 Holocaust Sketches Conclusion This chapter has tried to present a positive image of Judaism based both on its past and on its present. Such a picture has to contend with two factors that militate against such a positive image. The first is the legacy of a Christian reading of Judaism as something that belongs only to the past, that was closed and hostile to Jesus. In Part Two we will examine this image in more detail. The second factor is that most people are unlikely to meet living Jews or interact with them to any great extent. Hostility and ignorance thus combine to build up prejudice. Yet, once we look at Judaism without these two factors impeding our vision, we find a religion steeped in respect for God, honest and inspiring, from which we can all learn with profit. What has been presented here is but a sketch, as will be the case for this entire book, but one that should be constantly kept in mind. Judaism is a living and life-giving religion and way of life. Its divine origin is surely attested by its resilience in the face of so much opposition and misunderstanding. We can thus fittingly end this chapter with the words of Moses that are put at the door of each Jewish house: Listen, Israel, the Lord our God is the one Lord. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your strength. Let these words I urge on you today be written on your heart. You shall repeat them to your children and say them over to them whether at rest in your house or walking abroad, at your lying down or at your rising. You shall fasten them on your hand as a sign and on your forehead as a circlet. You shall write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates.24 24 Dt 6: 4-9. 14