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Chapter 25
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argued over standard measurements, zero longitude; metric system- created during French
Revolution, standard of measurement; Royal Greenwich Observatory- where standard time was
calculated for most of the globe
Albrecht Penck- 1891 proposed an international map of the world, using standard symbols and
colors and omitting political boundaries
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Big Five- Europe’s five great powers, Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia
German Empire created 1871, Italy created 1970
Three Emperors’ League- created by Bismarck in 1873, consisted of Germany, AustriaHungary, and Russia (eastern-most); Bismarck created this from fear of Germany’s future
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Germany- could easily be bottlenecked at sea; could be encircled; joined in industry, science,
and technology; couldn’t expand like Russia; couldn’t get lands like they did Alsace and
Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War;
Austria-Hungary- second largest in land, third in population; lacked geographical unity; behind
in agriculture and industry;
Ottoman Empire- bridged Europe and Asia; culturally diverse people; Turkey at its core; verge
of bankruptcy; “sick man of Europe”;
+Great Britain- did not fear strangulation by blockade; had trouble with Irish home rule; relied
on imports; first to become an urban and industrial power; relied on sea-lanes; greatest menace
was Germany
Destabilizing Factors of European Balance of Power
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1) tension between France and Germany- France lost dominance in Europe after losing to
Prussia and losing Alsace and Lorraine to Germany; trapped and isolated by small states and
Germany;
2) Russia’s preoccupation with maintaining free access to the Mediterranean Sea- landlocked
by frozen or blockaded ports;
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Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted 1874, Turkey was pressured to initiated reforms; Serbia and
Montenegro declared war on Turkey; Britain supported Turkey for trading reasons; Turkish
atrocities against Christians in Bulgaria (Armenian Genocide?); Britain became neutral, Russia
and Romania joined against Ottomans, captured all of Armenia forcing Ottoman sultan Abdul
Hamid II to sue for peace 1878
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Congress of Berlin- 1878 hosted by Bismarck at Berlin; Russia abandoned support of Serbian
nationalism and Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dual Alliance- 1879 created by Bismarck; contained Austria-Hungary and Germany when
Russia left the alliance preceding the Congress of Berlin; survived until the collapse of the two
regimes in 1918
Three Emperors’ League- renewed in 1881
Triple Alliance- 1882 created when Italy joined the Dual Alliance; lasted until 1914
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1871- German Empire created
1873- Three Emperors’ League created between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia
1874- revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina (first Balkan crisis)
1878- Congress of Berlin angers Russia, favors Austria-Hungary
1879- Dual Alliance created in place of Three Emperors’ League w/ Austria-Hungary, Germany
1881- Three Emperor’s League is renewed w/ Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia
1882- Triple Alliance created when Italy was added to the Dual Alliance
1885- hostilities between Bulgaria and Serbia involving Russia (second Balkan crisis)
1887- Reinsurance Treaty by Germany
1890- Bismarck resigns
1907- Triple Entente created between Russia, France, and Great Britain
1908-1909- Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina
1912- Italy vs. Turkey over Tripoli in North Africa
1913- Serbia and Bulgaria go at it again (third Balkan crisis), their mommies get involved, Serbia,
Russia, Britain vs. Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany
 1885 even after Russia won when atrocities were seen in Bulgaria, Bulgaria and Serbia still
wanted to kill each other; Russia didn’t like this and threatened to occupy Bulgaria, Austria stepped
in to prevent Russian domination of the Balkans, Russia was angry that Germany wasn’t helping,
Germany (Bismarck) explained to Russia in the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 saying that each
power would remain neutral if another finds itself in war
 Bismarck resigns in 1890, leaving hostilities without a peacemaker
 Triple Entente- created when Russia, allied France, and Great Britain 1907
 1908-1909 Austria-Hungary annexes formerly-occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, angering
Russia; Germany makes Russia chill, fearing hostile France and Russia on both sides of Germany
 1912- Italy and Turkey fight over Tripoli in North Africa; Balkan states took Turkey’s lands;
1913- Serbia and Bulgaria go at it again; Russia backs Serbia, Austria backs Bulgaria; British and
Germans want them to chill, but they soon join too, Britain joins Russia, Germany joins Austria
Hungary; so basically: Serbia, Russia, Britain vs. Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany
The New Imperialism
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new imperialism- “the acquisition of territories on an intense and unprecedented scale”… “the
domination of the industrial powers over the nonindustrial world”
steam, iron, electricity shrinked the planet; iron steamships fueled by coal replaced wooden
vessels;
Economics: Inventions, Creations, Discoveries
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Suez Canal was built in Egypt through the Isthmus of Suez, completed in 1869; ships no longer
had to go around the Cape of Good Hope; built by French under Ferdinand de Lesseps,
diplomat with no technical or financial background;
Panama Canal was built through the Isthmus of Panama; started by de Lesseps, French
mismanagement, bankruptcy, and disease turned construction over to the United States;
connected Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
copper telegraph wire and underwater cables connected the nations and continents
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1850 invented quinine pills; quinine is the bitter-tasting derivative of cinchona tree bark that
was discovered to be an effective treatment against malaria; first tested during the French
invasion of Algeria; allowed conquers to enter disease infested swamps; David Livingstone and
Henry M. Stanley explored after the invention of quinine
Geopolitics
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geopolitics- the politics of geography based on recognition that certain areas of the world are
valuable for political reasons; could be considered important because of its:
o 1) proximity to acquired colonies or to territory targeted for takeover; ex. France
occupied thousands of square miles of the Sahara Desert to protect interests in Algeria
o 2) proximity to sea routes; ex. Egypt was significant to Britain because of the Suez
Canal passage to India, France and Britain shared rule of the canal by 1879
o 3) contribution to the necessity of fueling bases throughout the world; necessary to fuel
ships and to be coaling station
Britain had the largest navy in beginning of twentieth century, followed by United States,
Germany, and Japan
Nationalism
France
 a) newspapers promoted outcries for conquest of the Congo by pointing out the need to
revenge British advances in Egypt
 b) 1882 French policy makers pursued claims in the Congo Basin because of “colonial
fever”; evicted Belgians and Portuguese for the French public
Germany
 promoted colonial hysteria through the press in order to advance political ends; Bismarck
promoted imperialism
Britain
 kept public enthusiasm for the Boer War high;
 J. A. Hobson- journalist and theorist of imperialism, denounced the “abuse of the press” in
Psychology of Jingoism released during Boer War; identified
o jingoism as the appropriate term for the “inverted patriotism whereby the love of
one’s own nation is transformed into hatred of another nation, and into the fierce
craving to destroy the individual members of that other nation”
o xenophobia- hatred of foreigners
o jingoes- those willing to risk war for national glory
Scramble for Africa
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scramble for Africa- the “mad” event that had altered the political landscape in Africa that is
usually considered as extending from around 1875 to 1912 and which put virtually all of Africa
under European control
Uganda and Malawi- created to please missionaries already working in colonies
Britain took Egypt, France took Djibouti for strategic reasons
areas in Mozambique, Tanzania, Namibia, and Botswana were seized to keep other Europeans
from taking them
Factors Favoring the Scramble
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1) pseudoscientific racist ideas asserting that Europeans were a superior race and that
Africans were inferior; Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man
(1871) legitimated the concept of evolution; Herbert Spencer applied evolution to humans,
creating social Darwinism, which states that the various racial groups not only occupied distinct
positions in a staged sequence of “development” over time, with whites the most advanced and blacks the
least, but were also engaged in a natural conflict or struggle with one another
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2) the atmosphere created by an economic downturn; Germany’s rise in economic power;
protectionist and imperialistic policies eroded the hope of free trade
Beginning of the Scramble
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Leopold II- king of Belgium credited with providing the catalyst for the scramble; heard good
things of the Congo Basin, an area one-third the size of the United States; organized the
International African Association to establish trading stations and get valuable ivory
Berlin Conference- held when Leopold II asked for approval of his having the Congo Basin
and when France and Portugal objected; held in Berlin 1884 to decide who rules the Congo;
gave Leopold II the Congo and called it the Congo Free State; also said that “effective
occupation” is required and planting a flag doesn’t do
Hiram Maxim- invented the machine gun that was used to dominate Africans
Britain occupied Egypt; France occupied Djibouti; Italy occupied Eritrea
Ethiopia- broken down into components ruled by “big men”- local rulers with little regard for
the emperor; its ruler Menelik II obtained weapons from France, then Italy, then Russia and
Britain;
Ethiopia and Italy: signed Treaty of Wichale with Italy which granted concessions in return for
arms shipments; Italy claimed Ethiopia an Italian protectorate, Menelik II argued; Italians were
sure they’d win, but General Oreste Baratieri was cautious with his 18,000 men army in
Eritrea, aware of Menelik II’s 100,000 troops; prime minister Francesco Crispi wanted a quick,
glorious victory, ordered battle at once; Italians lost more than 8,000 at the battle of Adowa
1896
Ethiopia and Liberia- only African countries not to be occupied in the scramble for Africa
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Afrikaners- white settlers who had emigrated, mostly from the Netherlands, and settled in
South Africa during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
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Great Trek- when large numbers of Afrikaners had withdrawn from the British controlled
Colony of the Cape of Good Hope (Cape Colony), after which Britain recognized the
independence of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal
Events That Shattered British Complacency
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1) Germany, Britain’s greatest rival, annexes Nambia as a colony; the British fear the Germans
and Afrikaners
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2) huge deposits of gold found in the Transvaal Republic; British moved in to mind gold,
which the Afrikaners weren’t advanced enough to do;
Cicil Rhodes- politician and financier intent upon expanding his wealth through expansion of
British power; mined in Transvaal Republic recognized the bad effect the Afrikaners had on
their mining, had his lieutenant Dr. L. S. Jameson invade Transvaal in the Jameson Raid,
failed
British sent Alfred Milner, ardent advocate of expanding the British Empire and keeping
German influence to a minimum, wanted the Afrikaners to unite with the British, expected war
to finish quickly, inept British and skillful Afrikaner guerrilla-warfare kept this Boer War
going
British took heavy casualties from fighting and typhus, were accused of treating Afrikaners like
blacks; 1902, British annexed Afrikaners, promised the Afrikaners that no decisions regarding
the political role of the black African majority in a future South Africa would be made before
returning political power to the Afrikaners
India
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1877 Queen Victoria became Empress of India; 1861 a viceroy was appointed
Hindu society: Brahmans – warriors and rulers – farmers and merchants – peasants and
laborers; outside of Hindu society were the “untouchables”
Punjab- the last area in India to be taken by the British, putting all of India under their control
China
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British traded wool and Indian cotton for Chinese tea and textiles; Chinese interest in wool and
cotton decreased, British interest in tea exploded
British traded Indian opium to Chinese to keep demand balanced; port of Canton in China
traded a lot of opium; British East India Company had monopoly on opium in Bengal
Chinese were worried about social problems, exporting of silver, and opium addiction caused
by the new trade; exchanging precious medals for poison; Chinese destroyed British opium in
the port of Canton touching off the Opium War (1839-1842)
British blockaded Canton and Shanghai; ended against China with the Treaty of Nanking
China fought five more wars between 1842 and 1895 and lost them all; Britain, France,
Germany, and Japan managed major territorial advantages in their spheres of influence; by
1912, more than 50 major Chinese ports had been handed over to foreign control as treaty
ports
extraterritoriality was practiced in treaty ports, in which foreigners are exempt from Chinese
law and are judged by officials of their own country, angered Chinese
consuls- represented those from their country that had extraterritoriality and lived in other
countries, judges cases, spokesmen for their countries interests
Boxer Rebellion 1900- showed the Western powers of their limited ability to control social
unrest in China; Boxers- peasants named by Westerners because of the martial practices of their
secret society, the Harmonious Fists, who rose up against foreign and Chinese exploitation in
north China; Boxers killed Europeans and seized foreign buildings in Beijing; Japanese,
Russians, British, Americans, Germans, French, Austrian, and Italian troops led by German
general Kaiser Wilhelm II slaughtered and sacked Beijing
U.S. Secretary of State John Hay created the Open Door Policy with China
Southeast Asia and Japan
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European nations took territories that formerly paid tribute to China; British acquired Hong
Kong, Burma, and Kowloon, Russians took Maritime Provinces
Indochina- created by French, composed of five territories administered separately;
Cochinchina (south Vietnam) was the only formal colony, protectorates were Annam (central
Vietnam), Tonkin (northern Vietnam), Cambodia, and Laos
Spain occupied Philippines, weren’t liked, execution of Jose Rizal united Filipinos against
Spanish; United States took control during the Spanish-American War, were still resisted
Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 Japan wanted to show how tough it is by joining in and hitting
China as well; easily defeated the Chinese, took Taiwan
Russo-Japanese War- Japan beat big giant boy Russia over the Liaotung peninsula, Korea, and
South Manchuria; expanded into these areas, and annexed Korea completely
Britain- dominant in overseas investment; City of London was world’s banker
Germany- fastest-growing competitor
United States- recently joined league of world’s great trading nations
British poet Rudyard Kipling called the Western responsibilities “the White Man’s burden”
British Francis Galton founded eugenics, the study of genetics for the purpose of improving
inherited characteristics of the race
German Kaiser Wilhelm II stressed that German women’s attention to the “three K’s” Kinder,
Kuche, and Kirche (children, kitchen, and church) would guarantee a race of Germans who
would rule the world
ecology- the relationship and adjustment of human groups to their environment; explorers
initially just looked and moved on, later had goals, spread diseases
Europeans used colonies for criminals; British in Australia, French in Guiana and New
Caledonia
United States acquired the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa for fueling bases and access to
lucrative east Asian ports
J. A. Hobson wrote Imperialism, A Study, still in print, argued that underconsumption and
surplus capital at home drove Western industrial countries overseas in search of a cure for those
economic ills; people sought higher profits abroad rather than investing at home, these business
interests are called “economic parasites”
Lenin wrote Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, capitalism is inherently and
inevitable imperialistic; called World War I the final “imperialist war”
Walter Bagehot said that he had “tried civilization for 40 years and it was not worth the
trouble”