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Monday Notes (Sentence Parts & Phrases) COMPLETE SUBJECT what we’re talking about COMPLETE PREDICATE what we’re saying about the subject OBJECT OF PREPOSITION follows preposition and tells whom? or what? The key is under the rug. “under whom or what?” (rug = O.P.) If there’s no object, it’s not a preposition: Please stand up. (Up is an adverb.) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE group of words beginning with preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun can act as an adjective (I saw the puppy with a crooked tail.) or adverb (My homework is in my locker.) VERB (FINITE VERB OR SIMPLE PREDICATE) action or being or linking word transitive: takes a direct object (We love grammar.) intransitive: does not take a direct object. (Please sit down.) All linking verbs are intransitive SIMPLE SUBJECT main word in the complete subject To find it say “who? or what?” “verb” Mike rode his bike. “who or what?” “rode?” (Mike = subj.) can never be in a prepositional phrase must be noun, pronoun, gerund, or infinitive There and here are never the subject of a sentence, The subject (in an imperative sentence) can be an “understood you”: Bring me the remote control, please. (You bring it.) COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the subject and verb types: o direct object is a noun or pronoun follows an action verb is never in a prepositional phrase To find it, say “subject,” “verb,” “whom or what?” I like grammar. “I” “like” “what?” (grammar = d.o.) o indirect object is a noun or pronoun comes before a direct object is never in a prepositional phrase To find it, say “subject,” “verb,” “direct object,” “to or for whom or what?” He gave me the paper. “He” “gave” “paper” “to whom?” (me = i.o.) o predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun follows linking verb and renames the subject To find it, say “subject,” “linking verb,” “what?” He is a nice guy. “He” “is” “what?” (guy = p.n.) o predicate adjective is an adjective follows linking verb and modifies the subject To find it, say “subject,” “linking verb,” “what?” He is nice. “He” “is” “what?” (nice = p.a.) APPOSITIVE/APPOSITIVE PHRASE noun or pronoun that follows and renames another noun or pronoun My friend Lynn likes asparagus. Sammie, my daughter, loves pumpkin soup. GERUND PHRASE gerund plus its modifiers and objects Riding a bike is fun. PARTICIPIAL PHRASE participle plus its modifiers and objects Moving quickly, Sarah caught the fly ball. INFINITIVE PHRASE infinitive plus its modifiers and objects He likes to eat pepperoni pizza. Tuesday Notes (Parts of Speech) NOUN person, place, thing, idea common: begins with lower case letter (city) proper: begins with capital letter (Charlotte) possessive: shows ownership (girl’s) PRONOUN takes the place of a noun types: st nd o personal (1 person pronouns having to do with the person speaking; 2 person pronouns having to do with the person you’re speaking to; 3rd person pronouns having to do with the people you talk about) singular nominative: I, you, he, she, it plural nominative: we, you, they singular objective: me, you, him, her, it plural objective: us, you, them singular possessive: my your, his, her, its, mine, yours plural possessive: our, your, their, ours, yours, theirs o reflexive (reflect back to “self”) myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves not words: hisself, ourself, theirselves o relative (start dependent clauses) who, whom, whose, which, that o interrogative (ask a question) Which? Whose? What? Whom? Who? o demonstrative (demonstrate Which one) this, that, these, those o indefinite (don’t refer to a definite person or thing) each, either, neither, few, some, all, most, several, few, many, none, one, someone, no one, everyone, anyone, somebody, nobody, everybody, anybody, more, much, another, both, any, other, etc. ADJECTIVE modifies nouns (green pen.) and pronouns (They are happy.) tells Which one? What kind? How many? articles: a, an (indefinite articles), the (definite article) ADVERB modifies adjectives (really cute), verbs (extremely fast), and other adverbs (very easily) tells How? When? Where? How much? To what extent? Not is always an adverb. PREPOSITION shows relationship between its noun or pronoun object and some other word in the sentence across, after, against, around, at, before, below, between, by, during, except, for, from, in, of, off, on, over, since, through, to, under, until, with, according to, because of, instead of, etc. We went to school. We went up the stairs. CONJUNCTION joins words, phrases, and clauses types: o coordinating – joins words, phrases, clauses of equal rank and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so o subordinating start dependent clauses (and therefore must be followed by subject and verb) after, since, before, while, because, although, so that, if, when, whenever, as, even though, until, unless, as if, etc. o correlative not only/but also, neither/nor, either/or, both/and VERB shows action or helps to make a statement types: o action shows action (physical or mental) She wrote a note. o linking or being links two words together (a subject to a subject complement) or makes a statement (I am here.) can be linking: is, be, am, are, was, were, been, being, appear, become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste Grammar is fun. (Linking: Grammar = fun) The game is on Saturday. (Being) o helping (auxiliary) “helps” an action verb or linking verb If a verb phrase has four verbs, the first three are helping. If it has three verbs, the first two are helping. And so on. can be helping: is, be, am, are, was, were, been, being, will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might, must, have, has, had, do, does, did, ought We have been taking notes all day. (Taking is action.) She will be cold without a jacket. (Be is linking) principal parts o infinitive (present), past, past participle, present participle principal parts of jump: jump, jumped, has jumped, jumping tenses o present = infinitive happening now (jump, talk, eat, is falling, am falling) [progressive uses present of be + present participle] o past = past happened previously (jumped, talked, ate, fell, was falling) [progressive uses past of be + present participle] o future = will or shall + infinitive will happen in the future (will jump, shall talk, will be eating) [progressive uses future of be + present participle] o present perfect = have, has + past participle began in the past but continues in the present or is completed in the present have jumped, has talked, have been eating, has been falling [progressive uses present perfect of be + present participle] o past perfect = had plus the past participle action in the past that occurs before another past action had jumped, had talked, had been eating [progressive uses past perfect of be + present participle] o future perfect = will have or shall have plus past participle will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the future will have jumped, shall have talked, will have been eating [progressive uses future perfect of be + present participle] VERBAL verb form used as a different part of speech types: o gerund verb acting like a noun ends in –ing (present participle) Reading is fun. (subj.) I enjoy shopping. (d.o.) Use pencils for drawing. (o.p.) o participle verb acting like an adjective ends in –ing or –ed, etc. (past participle or present participle) I have running shoes. Frightened, I ran down the street. It’s an unspoken rule. o infinitive to + verb (to + infinitive) can act like a noun (I like to eat.), an adjective (It’s the best place to eat), or an adverb (I need a pen to write a letter) Wednesday Notes (Clauses & Sentence Type) CLAUSES a group of related words Each clause must have a subject and verb. types: o independent (also called main clause) Every sentence must have at least one independent clause. The independent clause can usually stand alone. An independent clause does not start with a relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction. o dependent (also called subordinate clause) The dependent clause can never stand alone A dependent clause starts with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction. types: o adverb* ▫ usually starts with a subordinating conjunction ▫ acts like an adverb ▫ We will eat when the bell rings. (modifies eat) ▫ We will eat is independent. o adjective ▫ usually starts with a relative pronoun ▫ acts like an adjective ▫ She likes the guy who sits in front of her. (modifies guy) ▫ She likes the guy is independent. o noun ▫ used in place of a noun ▫ She said that we were early. (used as a direct object) SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE simple sentence = one independent clause { I } compound sentence = two or more independent clauses { I ; I } {I ,cc I } complex sentence = one independent clause + one or more dependent clauses { D, I } { I D } SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends in a period. An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends in a question mark. An imperative sentence gives a command and ends in a period. An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings and ends in an exclamation point. A declarative, interrogative, or imperative sentence can be exclamatory if it expresses strong feelings and ends in an exclamation point. Thursday Notes (Punctuation & Capitalization) CAPITALIZATION Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives Capitalize the first word of each sentence Capitalize titles except coordinating conjunctions, articles, & prepositions <5 letters (of, About) COMMAS (Rule numbers are significant for reference purposes only.) 1. after introductory participial phrase, (Running down the hall, he tripped and fell.) 2. after introductory interjections: Yes, I am a genius. 3. after informal salutations: Dear Mortitia, 4. after introductory prepositional phrases, (After science class, we go to lunch.) [multiple or >3 words] 5. after introductory adverb dependent clause (If it rains, we’ll go inside.) 6. after the day and year: June 17, 2009, was a rainy day. 7. after the city and state: Chicago, Illinois, is windy. 8. around nonessential clauses: Jane, who drives a red car, is nice. All students who skip school should be suspended. 9. around nonessential participle phrases: The magician, pulling a rabbit from his hat, laughed hysterically. 10. around most appositives: We read The Hobbit, a novel, in class. We read the novel The Hobbit in class. 11. around nouns of direct address: Tom, would you hand me the phone? Yes, Sue, I will. 12. around parenthetical expressions: I will, of course, expect you to pay. 13. before coordinating conjunctions in I, ccI compound sentences: Joe likes pizza, but Fred likes tacos. 14. between all items in a list: Please buy apples, oranges, and bananas. 15. between adjectives preceding a noun: I like the warm, fuzzy blanket. 16. between contrasts introduced by not: It’s here, not there. 17. between name and degree or title: Marcus Welby, Ph.D. 18. NOT after a short prepositional phrase: In June we went on vacation. SEMICOLON between two clauses without a coordinating conjunction o He likes apples; she likes oranges. o He goes to Harvard; however, she goes to Yale. between items in a list if the items contain commas o We went to London, England; Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; and Rome, Italy. APOSTROPHE noun made into a possessive adjective: Sarah’s wand missing letter in a contraction: don’t missing number in a year contraction: ‘09 Be sure you have a real word before your apostrophe: children’s toys, not childrens’ toys. to show possession after a plural noun ending in s: dogs’ owners. with an s to show possession after a singular noun: boss’s, Brutus’s NOT in possessive pronouns (hers, its, ours, yours, etc.) NOT in plural centuries or decades: 1800s; the 50s UNDERLINING/ITALICIZING Underlining and italicizing are the same thing. Underline or italicize titles of long things: newspapers, magazines, CDs, movies, novels, plays, musical compositions, etc. Underline or italicize names of ships, planes, trains, and artwork. Underline or italicize foreign expressions. Underline when referring to a word itself: You have too many and’s. COLON before a list that is not a compound direct object or subject complement: There are three cases of pronouns: subjective, objective, and possessive. between hours and minutes in time: 8:45 between Bible chapter and verse: Luke 4:16. after formal salutations: Dear Sir: between titles and subtitles: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest QUOTATION MARKS around titles of short things: short stories, poems, songs, articles, episodes of TV shows, etc. around dialogue and words copied from other sources. Commas and periods that follow quoted words always go inside closing quotation marks. (I said, “Go home.”) Colons and semicolons that follow quoted words always go outside closing quotation marks. (We’re “friends”; we don’t date.) Use single quotation marks only to enclose quotes within quotes. NOT to indicate cute, trite, or ungrammatical terms: Hi, “Buddies,” how about a “pep talk!” *adverb dependent clause = subordinating conjunction + subject + verb common subordinating conjunctions because after until as though so that since whenever before if even unless while as if although when **coordinating conjunctions and but or nor for yet so then however therefore ***adjective dependent clause = relative pronoun + subject + verb relative pronouns: that which who whom whose PREPOSITIONS about above across after against along among around at before behind below beneath between beyond by down during except for from in inside into like near of off on onto out outside over since through throughout to toward COMMONLY USED COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS according to aside from in front of across from because of in place of along with far from in spite of under until up upon with within without instead of on account of on top of