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Monday Notes
(Sentence Parts & Phrases)
COMPLETE SUBJECT
 what we’re talking about
COMPLETE PREDICATE
 what we’re saying about the subject
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
 follows preposition and tells whom? or what?
 The key is under the rug. “under whom or what?” (rug = O.P.)
 If there’s no object, it’s not a preposition: Please stand up. (Up is an
adverb.)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
 group of words beginning with preposition and ending with a noun or
pronoun
 can act as an adjective (I saw the puppy with a crooked tail.) or adverb (My
homework is in my locker.)
VERB (FINITE VERB OR SIMPLE PREDICATE)
 action or being or linking word
 transitive: takes a direct object (We love grammar.)
 intransitive: does not take a direct object. (Please sit down.)
 All linking verbs are intransitive
SIMPLE SUBJECT
 main word in the complete subject
 To find it say “who? or what?” “verb”
 Mike rode his bike. “who or what?” “rode?” (Mike = subj.)
 can never be in a prepositional phrase
 must be noun, pronoun, gerund, or infinitive
 There and here are never the subject of a sentence,
 The subject (in an imperative sentence) can be an “understood you”: Bring
me the remote control, please. (You bring it.)
COMPLEMENT
 completes the meaning of the subject and verb
 types:
o direct object
 is a noun or pronoun
 follows an action verb
 is never in a prepositional phrase
 To find it, say “subject,” “verb,” “whom or what?”
 I like grammar. “I” “like” “what?” (grammar = d.o.)
o indirect object
 is a noun or pronoun
 comes before a direct object
 is never in a prepositional phrase
 To find it, say “subject,” “verb,” “direct object,” “to or for
whom or what?”
 He gave me the paper. “He” “gave” “paper” “to whom?” (me =
i.o.)
o predicate nominative
 is a noun or pronoun
 follows linking verb and renames the subject
 To find it, say “subject,” “linking verb,” “what?”
 He is a nice guy. “He” “is” “what?” (guy = p.n.)
o predicate adjective
 is an adjective
 follows linking verb and modifies the subject
 To find it, say “subject,” “linking verb,” “what?”
 He is nice. “He” “is” “what?” (nice = p.a.)
APPOSITIVE/APPOSITIVE PHRASE
 noun or pronoun that follows and renames another noun or pronoun
 My friend Lynn likes asparagus.
 Sammie, my daughter, loves pumpkin soup.
GERUND PHRASE
 gerund plus its modifiers and objects
 Riding a bike is fun.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
 participle plus its modifiers and objects
 Moving quickly, Sarah caught the fly ball.
INFINITIVE PHRASE
 infinitive plus its modifiers and objects
 He likes to eat pepperoni pizza.
Tuesday Notes
(Parts of Speech)
NOUN
 person, place, thing, idea
 common: begins with lower case letter (city)
 proper: begins with capital letter (Charlotte)
 possessive: shows ownership (girl’s)
PRONOUN
 takes the place of a noun
 types:
st
nd
o personal (1 person pronouns having to do with the person speaking; 2
person pronouns having to do with the person you’re speaking to; 3rd
person pronouns having to do with the people you talk about)
 singular nominative: I, you, he, she, it
 plural nominative: we, you, they
 singular objective: me, you, him, her, it
 plural objective: us, you, them
 singular possessive: my your, his, her, its, mine, yours
 plural possessive: our, your, their, ours, yours, theirs
o reflexive (reflect back to “self”)
 myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves
 not words: hisself, ourself, theirselves
o relative (start dependent clauses)
 who, whom, whose, which, that
o interrogative (ask a question)
 Which? Whose? What? Whom? Who?
o demonstrative (demonstrate Which one)
 this, that, these, those
o indefinite (don’t refer to a definite person or thing)
 each, either, neither, few, some, all, most, several, few, many, none,
one, someone, no one, everyone, anyone, somebody, nobody,
everybody, anybody, more, much, another, both, any, other, etc.
ADJECTIVE
 modifies nouns (green pen.) and pronouns (They are happy.)
 tells Which one? What kind? How many?
 articles: a, an (indefinite articles), the (definite article)
ADVERB
 modifies adjectives (really cute), verbs (extremely fast), and other adverbs
(very easily)
 tells How? When? Where? How much? To what extent?
 Not is always an adverb.
PREPOSITION
 shows relationship between its noun or pronoun object and some other word
in the sentence
 across, after, against, around, at, before, below, between, by, during, except,
for, from, in, of, off, on, over, since, through, to, under, until, with, according
to, because of, instead of, etc.
 We went to school. We went up the stairs.

CONJUNCTION
 joins words, phrases, and clauses
 types:
o coordinating – joins words, phrases, clauses of equal rank
 and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
o subordinating

 start dependent clauses (and therefore must be followed by subject
and verb)
 after, since, before, while, because, although, so that, if, when,
whenever, as, even though, until, unless, as if, etc.
o correlative
 not only/but also, neither/nor, either/or, both/and

VERB
 shows action or helps to make a statement
 types:
o action
 shows action (physical or mental)
 She wrote a note.
o linking or being
 links two words together (a subject to a subject complement) or
makes a statement (I am here.)
 can be linking: is, be, am, are, was, were, been, being, appear,
become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste
 Grammar is fun. (Linking: Grammar = fun) The game is on
Saturday. (Being)
o helping (auxiliary)
 “helps” an action verb or linking verb
 If a verb phrase has four verbs, the first three are helping. If it has
three verbs, the first two are helping. And so on.
 can be helping: is, be, am, are, was, were, been, being, will, would,
can, could, shall, should, may, might, must, have, has, had, do,
does, did, ought
 We have been taking notes all day. (Taking is action.)
 She will be cold without a jacket. (Be is linking)

 principal parts
o infinitive (present), past, past participle, present participle
 principal parts of jump: jump, jumped, has jumped, jumping
 tenses
o present = infinitive
 happening now (jump, talk, eat, is falling, am falling)
 [progressive uses present of be + present participle]
o past = past
 happened previously (jumped, talked, ate, fell, was falling)
 [progressive uses past of be + present participle]
o future = will or shall + infinitive
 will happen in the future (will jump, shall talk, will be eating)
 [progressive uses future of be + present participle]
o present perfect = have, has + past participle
 began in the past but continues in the present or is completed in the
present
 have jumped, has talked, have been eating, has been falling
 [progressive uses present perfect of be + present participle]
o past perfect = had plus the past participle
 action in the past that occurs before another past action
 had jumped, had talked, had been eating
 [progressive uses past perfect of be + present participle]
o future perfect = will have or shall have plus past participle
 will begin in the future and be completed by a specific time in the
future
 will have jumped, shall have talked, will have been eating
 [progressive uses future perfect of be + present participle]
VERBAL
 verb form used as a different part of speech
 types:
o gerund
 verb acting like a noun
 ends in –ing (present participle)
 Reading is fun. (subj.) I enjoy shopping. (d.o.) Use pencils for
drawing. (o.p.)
o participle
 verb acting like an adjective
 ends in –ing or –ed, etc. (past participle or present participle)
 I have running shoes. Frightened, I ran down the street. It’s an
unspoken rule.
o infinitive
 to + verb (to + infinitive)
 can act like a noun (I like to eat.), an adjective (It’s the best place to
eat), or an adverb (I need a pen to write a letter)
Wednesday Notes
(Clauses & Sentence Type)
CLAUSES
 a group of related words
 Each clause must have a subject and verb.
 types:
o independent (also called main clause)
 Every sentence must have at least one independent clause.
 The independent clause can usually stand alone.
 An independent clause does not start with a relative pronoun or
subordinating conjunction.
o dependent (also called subordinate clause)
 The dependent clause can never stand alone
 A dependent clause starts with a relative pronoun or a
subordinating conjunction.
 types:
o adverb*
▫ usually starts with a subordinating conjunction
▫ acts like an adverb
▫ We will eat when the bell rings. (modifies eat)
▫ We will eat is independent.
o adjective
▫ usually starts with a relative pronoun
▫ acts like an adjective
▫ She likes the guy who sits in front of her. (modifies
guy)
▫ She likes the guy is independent.
o noun
▫ used in place of a noun
▫ She said that we were early. (used as a direct object)
SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE
 simple sentence = one independent clause { I }
 compound sentence = two or more independent clauses { I ; I } {I ,cc I }
 complex sentence = one independent clause + one or more dependent
clauses { D, I } { I D }
SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
 A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends in a period.
 An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends in a question mark.
 An imperative sentence gives a command and ends in a period.
 An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings and ends in an
exclamation point.
 A declarative, interrogative, or imperative sentence can be exclamatory if it
expresses strong feelings and ends in an exclamation point.
Thursday Notes
(Punctuation & Capitalization)
CAPITALIZATION
 Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives
 Capitalize the first word of each sentence
 Capitalize titles except coordinating conjunctions, articles, & prepositions
<5 letters (of, About)
COMMAS
(Rule numbers are significant for reference purposes only.)
1. after introductory participial phrase, (Running down the hall, he tripped
and fell.)
2. after introductory interjections: Yes, I am a genius.
3. after informal salutations: Dear Mortitia,
4. after introductory prepositional phrases, (After science class, we go to
lunch.) [multiple or >3 words]
5. after introductory adverb dependent clause (If it rains, we’ll go inside.)
6. after the day and year: June 17, 2009, was a rainy day.
7. after the city and state: Chicago, Illinois, is windy.
8. around nonessential clauses: Jane, who drives a red car, is nice. All students
who skip school should be suspended.
9. around nonessential participle phrases: The magician, pulling a rabbit from
his hat, laughed hysterically.
10. around most appositives: We read The Hobbit, a novel, in class. We read
the novel The Hobbit in class.
11. around nouns of direct address: Tom, would you hand me the phone? Yes,
Sue, I will.
12. around parenthetical expressions: I will, of course, expect you to pay.
13. before coordinating conjunctions in I, ccI compound sentences: Joe likes
pizza, but Fred likes tacos.
14. between all items in a list: Please buy apples, oranges, and bananas.
15. between adjectives preceding a noun: I like the warm, fuzzy blanket.
16. between contrasts introduced by not: It’s here, not there.
17. between name and degree or title: Marcus Welby, Ph.D.
18. NOT after a short prepositional phrase: In June we went on vacation.
SEMICOLON
 between two clauses without a coordinating conjunction
o He likes apples; she likes oranges.
o He goes to Harvard; however, she goes to Yale.
 between items in a list if the items contain commas
o We went to London, England; Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; and
Rome, Italy.
APOSTROPHE
 noun made into a possessive adjective: Sarah’s wand
 missing letter in a contraction: don’t
 missing number in a year contraction: ‘09
 Be sure you have a real word before your apostrophe: children’s toys, not
childrens’ toys.
 to show possession after a plural noun ending in s: dogs’ owners.
 with an s to show possession after a singular noun: boss’s, Brutus’s
 NOT in possessive pronouns (hers, its, ours, yours, etc.)
 NOT in plural centuries or decades: 1800s; the 50s
UNDERLINING/ITALICIZING
 Underlining and italicizing are the same thing.
 Underline or italicize titles of long things: newspapers, magazines, CDs,
movies, novels, plays, musical compositions, etc.
 Underline or italicize names of ships, planes, trains, and artwork.
 Underline or italicize foreign expressions.
 Underline when referring to a word itself: You have too many and’s.
COLON
 before a list that is not a compound direct object or subject
complement: There are three cases of pronouns: subjective, objective, and
possessive.
 between hours and minutes in time: 8:45
 between Bible chapter and verse: Luke 4:16.
 after formal salutations: Dear Sir:
 between titles and subtitles: Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest
QUOTATION MARKS
 around titles of short things: short stories, poems, songs, articles, episodes
of TV shows, etc.
 around dialogue and words copied from other sources.
 Commas and periods that follow quoted words always go inside closing
quotation marks. (I said, “Go home.”)
 Colons and semicolons that follow quoted words always go outside closing
quotation marks. (We’re “friends”; we don’t date.)
 Use single quotation marks only to enclose quotes within quotes.
 NOT to indicate cute, trite, or ungrammatical terms: Hi, “Buddies,” how
about a “pep talk!”

*adverb dependent clause = subordinating conjunction + subject + verb

common subordinating conjunctions
because
after
until
as
though
so that
since
whenever
before
if
even
unless
while
as if
although
when
**coordinating conjunctions
and but or nor for

yet
so
then
however
therefore
***adjective dependent clause = relative pronoun + subject + verb
relative pronouns: that
which
who
whom
whose
PREPOSITIONS
about
above
across
after
against
along
among
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
onto
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
to
toward
COMMONLY USED COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS
according to
aside from
in front of
across from
because of
in place of
along with
far from
in spite of
under
until
up
upon
with
within
without
instead of
on account of
on top of