Download The Parts of Speech

Describing Written English
Author’s note: This is a very simple attempt to force pupils to look at language
more carefully. Just like forcing pupils to hand-copy a poem will help them see
little things, this attempts to slow reading down to a snail’s pace. Counting
things may seem to be stupid, tedious work, but sometimes it helps us notice a
few things. And if worse comes to worse and we have no results, we can at
least report on what we found.
Syntax/ sentence structure
Are the sentences long or short?
Short sentences usually have simple structure and are not formally linked. This
is a style called parataxis.
George heard the bell ring. He went to the door. He opened it and saw a
package lying on the front porch.
The third sentence is interesting. Its structure is an example of something that
happens with parataxis. Parataxis can become monotonous. Every once in a
while a longer sentence is put in to provide some variation.
The third sentence has one subject (he) and two verbs (opened and saw). The
word package is complemented by a participial construction (lying). Thus the
syntax of the sentence is a little bit complicated.
Long sentences can be long in two ways.
a. Some long sentences have many subordinate clauses. This is a style called
hypotaxis.
The postman who had brought the package had returned to his golf car and
was about to drive away because he had many deliveries to make that day.
The sentence has an independent clause (The postman … had returned) and a
second verb (…was…) complemented by an infinitive construction (…about to
drive…). It also has a relative clause (…who had brought…) and a subordinate
clause (..because he had…) as well as an infinitive construction (…to make…).
b. Some long sentences consist of one independent clause but the individual
components of the clause are complex.
The aged and weary chief executive of the company for military computer
components had unwittingly allowed other computer component companies with
far lower production costs and quicker delivery times into the monumental deal
with the defence ministry of an oil-rich Middle Eastern country full of radical
Moslem splinter groups.
The subject is complex (the aged and weary chief executive of the company for
military computer components). The verb in this case is relatively simple (had
unwittingly allowed) with only one adverb added on, but more complex verbs
can be imagined. The direct object is complex (other computer component
companies with far lower production costs and quicker delivery times). There is
no indirect object, but that could complicate and lengthen the sentence, and we
have a certain number of prepositional phrases at the end to make a
syntactically simple sentence long.
Punctuation
Sometimes it is helpful to examine an author’s punctuation. Is it correct? Is he
or she a stickler about following the rules? Is the author’s use of punctuation
idiosyncratic? Does he or she break the rules? Does breaking the rules produce
positive results? Are they in love with colons or semicolons? Do they prefer
commas to periods (US) a full stop (UK)?
Useful Vocabulary
A phrase is a group of words which belong together.
A clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate (verb).
An independent clause is a clause which can stand alone.
Co-ordinate conjunctions like and, or, and but connect independent clauses.
A subordinate clause is a clause which can not stand alone and is usually
introduced by a subordinate conjunction.
A subordinate conjunction is a word like although or because which introduces
a subordinate clause.
An infinitive construction usually begins with to and an infinitive: to make ends
meet.
A participial construction uses a participle like taking a walk or taken by
surprise.
Present participles are –ing forms, half verb and half adjective and active in
meaning like taking
Perfect participles are the third principle part of a verb, half verb and half
adjective and passive in meaning like taken.
Gerunds are –ing forms but half verb and half noun, as is cooking in I like
cooking.
The Parts of Speech
Another way of looking at sentences is to find and count the different parts of
speech.
The parts of speech are
nouns
adjectives
articles
pronouns
verbs
adverbs
prepositions
conjunctions
In a normal declarative sentence one might expect four or five nouns with a
similar number of articles and adjectives because you would have nouns in the
subject, direct object, indirect object (if present) and as objects of the
prepositions in the prepositional phrases. But you would expect only one verb.
The nice grocer gave the young lady an extra apple for her birthday.
The number of nouns, articles and adjectives are about the same. There is one
verb for four or five nouns.
You can count the number of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs and
sometimes see some very simple differences between authors. Some might use
a large number of adjectives. Some might use very few adjectives. Some might
use many more verbs than you expect. In that case you should look at the kinds
of adjectives or at the kinds of verbs they choose. In the case of verbs we have
more energetic verbs like shake or rush, less energetic verbs like have or be or
wait.
Finding a large number of prepositions should indicate a larger number of
adverbial phrases at the end of a long sentence. This should support your
findings under syntax.
Finding a large number of subordinate conjunctions should indicate a large
number of subordinate clauses. This should support your findings under syntax.
Choice of Words
Most pupils have a fairly standard vocabulary that includes neither many high
level nor low level words. Of course some slang expressions have reached their
vocabulary through the media, but – unless they have spent a year abroad –
they will only have a rudimentary grasp of colloquial English and all its idioms
and metaphors.
One indicator of the author’s choice of words is how many words the pupils
must look up in a dictionary. If the pupils must look up large quantities of
polysyllables and find that these words are marked as archaic or poetic, as
belonging to technical areas like engineering or theology or marked as vulgar or
idiomatic, they can draw certain conclusions about the author’s choice of words.
In most cases the choice of words lies either significantly above or below the
pupils’ simpler standard vocabulary.
Derivatives from foreign languages can also play a role. Many scientific
expressions have Latin or Greek roots. A large number of English words were
taken from medieval French, but even these tend to be used as higher level
words than the Germanic monosyllables (gut instead of intestines). Words from
other foreign languages might be just an attempt to impress somebody.
Journalism
At least American journalism is a form of infotainment, that is, a mix of
information and entertainment. The journalist may wish to inform, but when
entertaining, any word which does the job is the right word. We hear of “sexing
up” an article, but it can also be “toned down” if good taste requires. We
therefore find a curious mix of hot and cold words in some articles. Students
tend to find this situation ambivalent and choose one possibility and argue
convincingly for it, ignoring the other possibilities.
This ambivalence is also inherent in American reporting because journalists
wish to present a balanced view. A typical journalistic presentation, TV or print
media, might begin with one side of the issue, explore it and then end with the
opposite point of view, just to be balanced. The choice of words all the time
would be mixed, not so much intending to comment on the issue, but rather
trying to be entertaining.
American journalism also has a peculiar approach to structuring the article. The
story is usually told several times. The story will be told the first time using the
most spectacular details to tell the general story once. Then the story will be
retold using a different selection of details. By the third or fourth repetition
quotes from various sources will be used. This may go on until the story has
been told seven or eight times, each time using different concrete details.
The editor is the reason for this method. The reporter and other re-writers never
know how much space the editor will have available on a given day. Writing is
this fashion allows the editor to cut the story or put it all in the newspaper
depending on how much copy he needs that day.
Rhetorical Devices
Of course searching for any and all rhetorical devices is a legitimate part of this
endeavor.