Download men. This is because the male testicles starts inside the abdomen

men. This is because the male testicles starts inside the abdomen and has to go down through an opening
in the groin area to reach the scrotum (the sac that holds the testicles). If this opening does not close at
birth, a hernia develops. In women, this type of hernia can occur if reproductive organs or the small
intestine slides into the groin area because of a weakness in the abdominal muscles.
Direct inguinal hernia. This type hernia is caused by weakening of your abdominal muscles over
time and is more likely to be seen in adults. It occurs only in men.
Symptoms:
1. A bulge that increases in size when you strain and disappear when you lied down
2. Sudden pain in your groin or scrotum when exercising or straining
3. A feeling of weakness, pressure, burning, or aching in your groin or scrotum
Diagnosisand treatment:Inguinal hernia is most often diagnosed through a medical history and
physical examination. Your doctor asks you questions about hernia symptoms he then look for and feel
for a bulge in your groin or scrotal area.
1. Opening repair
2. Laparoscopy
Asoh Smith Ekanya
THE ANATOMY AND PATHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN HEART
Kharkov National Medical University, Human Anatomy Department
Kharkov, Ukraine.
The heart is a hollow muscular organ which receives blood from the venous trunks draining into
it and pumps the blood into the arterial system. The heart is cone-shaped and has a rounded apex that
faces downward and a base directed upward.
Topography of the heart. The heart is located asymmetrically in the anterior mediastinum. Its
greater parties to the left of the midline and only the right atrium and both venacavae creates the right.
The greater part of the anterior surface of the heart is covered by the lungs, except for one area which by
the pericardium attaches to the sternum and cartilage of the fifth and sixth left ribs.
Structure of the heart walls. The walls of the heart is made of three layers:
1. An inner layer lining the inner surface of the heart cavities called endocardium.
2. A middle muscular layer called myocardium consists of fibres of the atriums, ventricles and
atrioventricular bundle of His.
3. An outer layer, theepicardium, is the visceral layer of the serous pericardium.
Chambers of the heart. The heart has four chambers; two atria and two ventricles. The atria are
the blood –receiving chambers. The ventricles pump blood from the heart into the arteries. The atria are
separated by the inter-atria septum and the ventricles are separated by the inter-ventricular septum.
Contraction of the walls of the heart chambers is called systole and their relaxation is called diastole.
Muscles and valves lining the inner heart:
1. The anterior and posterior papillary muscles: are two in number ,one being connected to the
anterior, the other to the posterior wall.They are of large size and end in rounded extremities from which
the chordae tendinae arise.
2. Chordae Tendineae: pull on the atrioventricular valves and prevents it from folding backward and
allowing blood to regurgitate pass them.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Pectinate muscle
Trabeculaecarneae: project from the whole of the inner surface the ventricle.
The valves of the heart are divided in to two types;
The Atrioventricular valves; tricuspid and bicuspid valve.
The Semilunar valves; pulmonary and aortic valve.
Vessels and nerves of the heart: Arteries of the heart: right and left coronary arteries and the
intraorganic arteries. The veins of the heart:
1.
2.
Veins of the system of thee coronary sinus.
The anterior cardiac veinand smallest cardiac veins.
Pathology of the heart. There are several pathological heart conditions and may include;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Coronary artery disease.
Stable angina pectoris.
Unstable angina pectoris.
Arrhythmia.
Atrial fibrillation
Saara Nena-Ndahekelekwa Imbili
MAMMARY GLAND BIOLOGY, WITHEMPHASIS ON BREAST CANCER
Kharkov National Medical University, Human Anatomy Department
Scientific Leader: PHD. Lesya Babiy
Kharkov, Ukraine.
Breast cancer is the most common invasive cancer in women and leading cause of death among
women (522 000 deaths in 2012) and also the most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide, in 2012, 1.7
million women were diagnosed with breast cancer (Ferlay et al., 2013). Numerous epidemiologic
studies have suggested that specific details in the development of the mammary gland play a critical role
in breast cancer risk.Mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young
offspring and in humans, theyare situated in the breasts and humans normally have two complex
mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland consists of 10–20 simple
glands (Macéa, et al., 2006).
Before the 20th century, breast cancer was feared and discussed in hushed tones, as if it were
shameful.Breast cancer is a type of cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner
lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Breast cancer occurs in humans and
other mammals, while the overwhelming majority of human cases are in women and also breast cancer
can also occur in men (Sariego, 2010). The characteristics of the cancer determine the treatment, which
may include surgery, medications (hormonal therapy and chemotherapy), radiation and/or
immunotherapy, wherebySurgery provides the single largest benefit, and to increase the likelihood of
remission, (Florescu, 2011).The first noticeable symptom of breast cancer is typically a lump that feels
different from the rest of the breast tissue othersinclude, thickening, one breast becoming larger or
lower, a nipple changing position or shape or becoming inverted, skin dimpling, a rash on or around a
nipple, discharge from nipple/s, and constant pain (Merck, 2003). According to Reeder and Vogel
(2008), the primary risk factors for breast cancer are female sex and older age, other potential risk
factors include: genetics, lack of childbearing or lack of breastfeeding, higher levels of certain
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