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Part 4: Leading
Chapter 8
Foundations of Individual and Group
Behavior
個人與群體行為的基礎
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Outline
1. Organizational behavior組織行為
2. Individual Behavior個人行為
• Attitudes and their components態度
• Personality and its use性格
• Perception and how it can be shaped
知覺
• Learning: shaping employee
behavior學習
3. Group behavior群體行為
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心若改變....你的態度跟著改變~
態度改變....你的習慣跟著改變~~
習慣改變....你的性格跟著改變~~~
性格改變....你的人生跟著改變~~~~
態度決定高度
性格決定格局
腦袋決定口袋
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Organizational Behavior (OB)組織行為
• The study of the actions of people at work
• The focus of OB
– Individual behaviors個人行為。包括態度、人格特性、知
覺、學習和動機
• Personality, perception, learning, and motivation
– Group behaviors群體行為，包括規範、角色、團隊建立
和衝突。
• Norms, roles, team-and conflict
• The goals of OB
– To explain
– To predict behavior OB
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The Organization as an Iceberg Metaphor
態度
認知
規範
非正式互動
人際間與群體間之衝突
EXHIBIT 8.1
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OB’s Interest
• Employee productivity生產力
– The efficiency and effectiveness of employees
• Absenteeism曠職
– The election by employees not to attend work
• Turnover離職
– The exit of an employee from an organization
• Organizational citizenship組織的優質員工
– Employee behaviors that promote the welfare
of the organization
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• KNOWLEDGE
11 + 14 + 15 + 23 + 12 + 5 + 4 + 7 + 5 = 96
• HARDWORK
8 + 1 + 18 + 4 + 23 + 15 + 18 + 11 = 98
• ATTITU D E
1 + 20 + 20 + 9 + 20 + 21 + 4 + 5 = 100
• BULLSHIT
2 + 21 + 12 + 12 + 19 + 8 + 9 + 20 = 103
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Attitudes態度
• Valuative statements concerning objects, people,
or events對於某些物品、人物、事件所作的評價
• 三要素（components)：
– Cognitive component認知要素
• The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a
person一個人所持有的信念、意見、知識或資訊
– Affective component情感要素
• The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude某種態度在
情緒或感情上的因素
– Behavioral component行為要素
• An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or
something針對某些人或事所表現出的一特定行為意圖。
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Job-related Attitudes
• Job satisfaction工作滿意度
– An employee’s general attitude toward his or her
job.
• Job involvement工作參與
– The degree to which an employee identifies with
his or her job, actively participates in it, and
considers his or her job performance important for
self-worth.
• Organizational commitment組織付出
– An employee’s orientation toward the organization
in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with,
and involvement in the organization.
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Personality性格
• Combination of the psychological traits心理特
質 that characterize that person.
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
– A method of identifying personality types uses
four dimensions of personality to identify 16
different personality types
• Big Five model
– Five-factor model of personality that includes
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• Extroversion versus introversion (EI)外向vs.
內向
– An individual’s orientation toward the external
world of the environment (E) or the inner world
of ideas (I).
• Sensing versus intuitive (SN)感官vs.直覺
– An individual’s preference on gathering data
focusing routine facts (S) or on the big picture
among the facts (N).
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
(cont’d)
• Thinking versus feeling (TF)思考vs.感覺
– One’s preference for evaluating information in a
logical and analytical manner (T) or on the basis of
values and beliefs (F).
• Judging versus perceiving (JP).判斷vs.認知
– Reflects an attitude toward the external world that
is either in a planned and ordered way講求規畫及
順序 (J) or preferring to remain flexible and
spontaneous保持彈性或順其自然 (P).
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Characteristics Frequently Associated with Myers-Briggs
Types
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The Big Five Model of Personality
Extroversion外向性
A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive.
Agreeableness
A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and
trusting.
Conscientiousness
A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent,
and achievement oriented.
Emotional stability
A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure
(positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure
(negative).
Openness to experience A personality dimension that describes the degree to
which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive,
and intellectual.
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五大性格模式
• 外向性格構面：描述一個人喜好社交、交談與專斷程
度。
• 適合性格構面：描述一個人良好本質、合作性與信任
程度。
• 正直性格構面：描述一個人負責、可信賴、堅毅與成
就取向程度。
• 情緒穩定構面：描述一個人鎮靜、熱忱、穩定（正面
的）或壓力、緊張、沮喪及不安（負面的）的程度。
• 對經驗的開放性格構面：描述一個人富想像力、對藝
術的敏感度與智力程度。
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Emotional intelligence (EI)情緒智商 or
EQ
• An assortment of noncognitive skills,
capabilities, and competencies that influence
a person’s ability to cope with environmental
demands and pressures
• 知覺自己情感
– Self-awareness own feelings
• 自我管理情緒
– Self-management of own emotions • 自我激勵面對
– Self-motivation in face of setbacks 挫折
• 同理心
– Empathy for others’ feelings
• 處理他人情緒
– Social skills to handle others’ emotions之社交技能16
Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors
• Locus of control
• 命運之
– A personality attribute that measures
the degree to which people believe that 內外控
傾向
they are masters of their own fate
• Machiavellianism (“Mach”)
• 馬基維
– A measure of the degree to which
people are pragmatic務實, maintain
利主義
emotional distance, and believe that
ends can justify means目標可以合理化
任何手段
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Personality Traits And Work-related
Behaviors (cont’d)
• Self-esteem (SE)
– An individual’s degree of life dislike
for him- or herself
• 自尊
• Self-monitoring
• 自我監
– A measure of an individual’s ability to 控
adjust his or her behavior to external,
situational factors
• Propensity for risk taking
• 冒險傾
– The willingness to take chances—a
向
preference to assume or avoid risk
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Matching Personalities And Jobs
Person
Performanc
e
Job
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Personality Characteristics of
Entrepreneurs
• Proactive Personality
– High level of motivation
• Internal locus of control
• Need for autonomy
– Abundance of self-confidence
• Self-esteem
– High energy levels
• Persistence
– Moderate risk taker
• Problem solver
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Perception知覺
A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order
to give meaning to their environment.
• 個人經由整理及解釋感官印象，並賦予環
境意義的過程。
• 每個人對同樣的事物，產生不同的知覺。
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Influences on Perception知覺的影響
• Personal
• Target
characteristics個 characteristics目標特質
人特質
– Relationship of a target
– Attitudes
– Personality
– Motives
– Interests
– Past
experiences
– Expectations
to its background
– Closeness and/or
similarity to other things
– The context in objects is
seen
– Other situational factors.
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Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?
EXHIBIT 8.5
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Attribution theory歸因理論(How
Managers Judge Employees)
• A theory based on the premise that we judge
people differently depending on the meaning
we attribute to a given behavior解釋我們對於
人的判斷不同，乃基於我們對特定行為有不
同的歸因。
– Internally caused: believed to be under the
control of the individual.內在引發的行為，是那些
被認為在個人控制之下的行為。
– Externally caused: results from outside causes;
having been forced into the behavior by the
situation.外在引發的行為，是外界原因所造成的
結果，也就是個人迫於情境而產生的行為。
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Interpreting Behavior解讀行為
• Distinctiveness特異性
– Whether an individual displays a behavior in many
situations or whether it is particular to one situation. 是否在
許多不同情境下，或只有在特定情境下，才有這樣的行為表
現。
• Consensus共通性
– If the individual responds in the same way as everyone
else faced with a similar situation responds.每個人面對相
似情境時，是否以同樣的方式應對
• Consistency一致性
– The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly
and consistently over time.是否表現出一致的行為
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EXHIBIT 8–6 The Process of Attribution Theory
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Judgment Errors
• Fundamental attribution error基本歸因錯誤
– The tendency to underestimate the influence
of external factors and overestimate the
influence of internal or personal factors when
making judgments about the behavior of
others.
• Self-serving bias自我滿足的偏見
– The tendency for individuals to attribute their
own successes to internal factors while
putting the blame for failures on external
factors.
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Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging
Others判斷扭曲偏頗的情形
Selectivity選擇性
Assumed similarity假設有類同經驗
Stereotyping刻板（先入為主）印象
Halo effect光環效應
Self-fulfilling prophecy自我實現預言
EXHIBIT 8.7
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Learning學習
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience任何經
由經驗所產生的較持久的行為改變。
Operant conditioning操作性制約(B. F. Skinner)
– Voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of its
consequences行為是其結果的函數
• Reinforcement強化 increases the likelihood that
behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not
rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
• Rewards 獎勵are most effective if they immediately
follow the desired response.
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Learning (cont’d)
• Social learning theory社會學習理論
– People can learn through observation and
direct experience; by modeling the behavior of
others人們經由觀察和直接經驗來學習的理論；
透過模擬別人行為的方式
• Modeling processes
– Attentional processes
– Retention processes
– Motor reproduction processes
– Reinforcement processes
•
•
•
•
注意
留意
動作重現
強化
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How to Shape Behavior如何塑造行為
• Shaping behavior
– Systematically reinforcing each successive
step that moves an individual closer to a
desired behavior系統化的強化每一系列的步驟，
使個人逐漸趨近目標行為
• Four ways to shape behavior:
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative reinforcement
– Punishment
– Extinction.
•
•
•
•
正向強化
負向強化
處罰
消弱
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Steps in Shaping Behavior
1. Identify the critical behaviors that have a significant
impact on an employee’s performance.
2. Establish a baseline of performance.
3. Analyze the contributing factors to performance and
their consequences.
4. Develop a shaping strategy.
5. Apply the appropriate strategy.
6. Measure the change that has occurred.
7. Reinforce desired behaviors.
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Foundations Of Group Behavior
• Group群體
– Two or more interacting and interdependent
individuals who come together to achieve
particular objectives
• Role角色
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone in a given position in a social unit某人
在社會中擔任職位的一套行為模式 。
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Foundations Of Group Behavior
(cont’d)
• Norms規範
– Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance,
dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the
members of a group群體中成員互相認同的標準
• Status地位
– A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group群體
中較具聲望的成績、職位、階級
• May be informally conferred by characteristics such as
education, age, skill, or experience.
• Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it.
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Why do People Join Groups?
Security
Status
Self-esteem
Affiliation
Power
Goal
achievement
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Examples of Cards Used in Asch Study
Solomon Asch and Group Conformity:
Does the desire to be accepted as a part of a group leave one susceptible
to conforming to the group’s norms? Will the group exert pressure that is
strong enough to change a member’s attitude and behavior? According to
the research by Solomon Asch, the answer appears to be yes.
EXHIBIT 8.9
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Group Effects群體效應
• Social loafing社會虛擲
– The tendency of an individual in a group to
decrease his or her effort because
responsibility and individual achievement
cannot be measured由於個人的責任及成就無
法量測，成員會有降低自己努力的傾向。
• Group cohesiveness凝聚力
– The degree to which members of a group are
attracted to each other and share goals
• Size, work environment, length of time in existence,
and group-organization goal congruency affect the
degree of group cohesiveness.
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The Relationship Between Group
Cohesiveness and Productivity
EXHIBIT 8.10
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