Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
GENERAL SCOPE AND USES OF PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY Course name: Physical Anthropology Paper No. & Title: B.A./B.Sc. (Honours) 2nd semester (Practical) Topic No. & Title: 5/12 (Part-II) Drawing and Description of Upper limbs bones: Femur, Tibia and Fibula. Objective: Why do students of physical anthropology need to draw and describe bones? The important aims and objectives of drawing and description of bones are: 1. to know and get acquainted with the anatomical details and features, location and orientation on the skeleton, 2. to understand the functional interpretations of the bones, and 3. to establish phylogenetic as well as evolutionary interpretations of the bones through comparative study of different species. Content & Script of the Programme Introduction: Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, comprising of 80 in axial part and 126 in appendicular part (64 in upper limb and 62 in lower limb). In the study of physical anthropology, the knowledge of bones and skeleton is a must as it forms a part and parcel of the discipline. Now the question is why we study human skeleton and bones in physical anthropology. The sub discipline physical anthropology is devoted to the study of physical aspect of man. And when we say physical aspect, it covers a very wide spectrum ranging from the unit of living organism to multifaceted inter and intra population physical variation of human species on this globe as well as its relationship, affinities and variations with non human primates. So in physical anthropology we study human bones and skeleton with a view to understand the anatomical details of the bones, its location on the skeleton and functional interpretations as well. At the same time through the study of human bones and skeleton, an evolutionary sequence of different lineages can be established using the techniques of comparative anatomy of bones and skeleton of human and non human primates. Therefore it is of basic necessity for the students of anthropology to learn and know the fundamentals of drawing and description of human bones. Procedures for drawing and description of bones: The basic requirements for drawing a bone include a ruler, a well sharpened pencil, a rubber (eraser) and a drawing sheet of appropriate size corresponding to the size of the note book. Before we directly start drawing the bone, first of all draw the bordering line on the paper where the drawing is to be made. Then, after drawing the borderline, just on the right hand top corner below the borderline you should keep a space for writing the date on which the diagram is drawn. Along with it in the middle portion just below the borderline you have to write the name of the bone. After that you make a virtual division of the drawing sheet, so that the required views of the bones can be drawn proportionately in each division. As for example if you want to represent the anterior, posterior, medial and lateral views of the bone then divide the drawing sheet into four virtual divisions wherein you can draw each one view. Thereafter, you can start drawing in a systematic way. The drawing should be purely free hand drawing. should be However, it proportionate to the original bone. That means it should neither be very large nor very lengthy. You can use slight shading of various parts of the bone like condyles, facets, tuberosities, tubercles, fossa, foramen, ridges, crests etc. so that the same is very clearly and distinctly visible. After drawing, the next step is to label the various parts of the bone. You should as far as possible use dotted lines in labeling the various parts because solid lines may often be confused as a part of the bone. Then after labeling various parts of the bone you also have to labeled the various views you have drawn such as anterior view, posterior view, profile view, inferior view etc. And after labeling provide a space for the teacher’s remark and signature at the bottom right or left hand corner just above the border line. For a systematic description of the bone, first of all, you should carefully observe the bone, and identify the type of skeleton, part of skeleton, type of bone by stating reasons, and also anatomical position and location in the skeleton. Then you can start elaborate systematic description of various parts of the bone. Systematic description of femur bone: Type of skeleton : the tissue. Endoskeleton as it is found underneath Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of lower extremity. Type of bone : A long bone because it possesses two epiphyses (extremities) and a diaphysis (shaft). Location : thigh. Vertically located in the Name of bone : Human femur bone (thigh bone). General description: Human femur bone is the longest, strongest and heaviest bone of human skeleton. Its main function is suppoting the body’s weight during walking, standing and running. The bone articulates with acetabulum of hip bone superiorly, and with patella and tibia inferiorly. Femur bone being a long bone, has three parts- upper extremity, lower extremity and a shaft in between. Anatomical description: Upper epiphysis of femur includes the head, neck, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, intertrochanteric crest and intertrochanteric line. The head of the femur is more than half of a sphere, oriented medially upward and slightly forward. It articulates with the acetabulum of hip bone. There is a roughened pit called fovea situated just below and behind the centre of the head. The head is connected with the shaft by a short tubular structure neck. There is a large, blunt non articular prominence called greater trochanter at the upper part of the junction of the neck with the shaft on the lateral, proximal part of femur. There is another blunt prominent tubercle called lesser trochanter on the posterior femoral surface just inferior to the point where the neck joins the shaft. The rough crest that passes between the lesser and greater trochanter on the posterior surface is called intertrochanteric crest while the rough line that passes between the lesser and greater trochanter on the anterior surface is called intertrochanteric line. The shaft is the more or less cylindrical portion of the bone which connects the upper end with the lower end. It is narrowest in the middle and more expanded distally and proximally. The wide flat triangular area of the posterior distal end of shaft of femur is called popliteal surface. It has three borders medial, lateral and posterior. The medial and lateral borders are rounded and ill defined, whereas, the posterior border called linea aspera is roughened ridge which forms two distinct medial and lateral lips at the lower part of the shaft. The shaft also has three surfaces viz. medial, lateral and anterior. Lower epiphysis is widely expanded and forming two condyles- lateral condyle and medial condyle. Anteriorly these two condyles are united and forms a large articular surface of patella called patellar surface. Posteriorly the two condyles are separated by a deep groove called intercondylar fossa or intercondylar notch. Convexities are seen on both the lateral and medial condyles which are called lateral epicondyle and medial epicondyle respectively. Side identification: 1. The upper end of the femur should be proximal in position. Therefore the head of the femur should face medially, forward and upward. 2. Linea aspera – a prominent ridge which runs along the concavity of the posterior side of the shaft should face backward. In other words, the convex surface of the shaft should face forward in position. 3. The lower end should face downward with the larger one of the two condyles i.e medial condyle facing medially. Systematic description of tibia bone: Type of skeleton : the tissue. Endoskeleton as it is found underneath Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of lower extremity. Type of bone : A long bone because it possesses two epiphyses (extremities) and a diaphysis (shaft). Location : Vertically located medial bone in the lower leg. Name of bone : Human tibia bone (shin bone). General description: The lower leg of human body has two bones. One of them is medial and the other is lateral in position. Tibia is the medial larger bone of the two lower leg bones. Its main function is receiving the body weight of the upper parts of the body and transmitting the same to the foot through ankle. It articulates with femur and fibula at the proximal end, and with fibula and ankle bones at the distal end. Tibia being a long bone has two epiphyses and one diaphysis. The body of the bone is prismatic in form, expanded above and slightly enlarged below. Anatomical description: The upper end of tibia has two expanded condyles – lateral condyle and medial condyle. The medial condyle is larger of the two. The superior surface of the condyles are provided with concave and smooth articular surfaces separated by an eminence- intercondylar eminence. Posteriorly the condyles are separated by popliteal notch, Anteriorly the tuberosities form a continuous and flattened surface – tubercle. The shaft is fairly straight, prismatic and triangular above and continues to decrease till the most at lower ¼. It has three borders- anterior (tubercle to anterior margin of inner malleolus), medial (back part of medial tuberosity to posterior inner malleolus) and lateral (front of fibular articular facet and bifurcates below). It has three surfaces- internal, external and posterior. Lower end has five surfaces viz. anterior, posterior, medial, lateral and inferior. The distal end is also provided with a strong process projecting downward called medial malleolus which forms a medial knob at the ankle. Side Identification: To identify whether the given tibia is either left or right tibia, we may take into consideration the following points. 1. The upper expanded ends possessing lateral and medial condyles should be superior in position 2. The popliteal notch on the upper end should face posteriorly 3. Medial maleolus should be medial and inferior in position 4. The anterior border of the shaft is most prominent and crest- like. Systematic description of fibula bone: Type of skeleton : the tissue Endoskeleton as it is found underneath Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of lower extremity Type of bone : A long bone because it possesses two epiphyses (extremities) and a diaphysis (shaft). Location : Vertically located lateral bone of lower leg Name of bone : Human fibula bone (shin bone) General Description: The lower leg of human body has two bones. One of them is medial and the other is lateral in position. Fibula is the lateral larger bone of the two lower leg bones. It articulates with femur and tibia at the proximal end, and with ankle bones at the distal end. Tibia being a long bone has two epiphyses and one diaphysis. The body of the bone is lean and thin. Anatomical Description: The upper end of the fibula which is known as head is irregular quadrate in form. It is slightly expanded in all directions. The superior surface bears a circular facet for articulation with lateral condyle of tibia. The apex of the head (styloid process) projects upward from its posterolateral aspect. The constriction below the head is neck. The shaft is slender and has three borders - anterior, posterior and medial, three surfaces -medial, lateral, posterior. The lower end of fibula projects downward forming a structure known as lateral malleolus.