Download general scope and uses of physical/biological anthropology

 GENERAL SCOPE AND USES OF
PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Course name:
Physical Anthropology
Paper No. & Title: B.A./B.Sc. (Honours) 2nd semester
(Practical)
Topic No. & Title: 5/12 (Part-II) Drawing and Description of
Upper limbs bones: Femur, Tibia and
Fibula.
Objective:
Why do students of physical anthropology need to draw and
describe bones? The important aims and objectives of
drawing and description of bones are:
1.
to know and get acquainted with the anatomical details
and features, location and orientation on the skeleton,
2.
to understand the functional interpretations of the
bones, and
3.
to establish phylogenetic as well as evolutionary
interpretations of the bones through comparative study of
different species.
Content & Script of the Programme
Introduction:
Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones, comprising of
80
in
axial
part
and
126
in
appendicular part (64 in upper limb
and 62 in lower limb). In the study
of
physical
anthropology,
the
knowledge of bones and skeleton is
a must as it forms a part and parcel
of the discipline. Now the question is
why we study human skeleton and bones in physical
anthropology. The sub discipline physical anthropology is
devoted to the study of physical aspect of man. And when we
say physical aspect, it covers a very wide spectrum ranging
from the unit of living organism to multifaceted inter and intra
population physical variation of human species on this globe
as well as its relationship, affinities and variations with non
human primates. So in physical anthropology we study
human bones and skeleton with a view to understand the
anatomical details of the bones, its location on the skeleton
and functional interpretations as well. At the same time
through
the
study
of
human
bones
and
skeleton,
an
evolutionary sequence of different lineages can be established
using the techniques of comparative anatomy of bones and
skeleton of human and non human primates. Therefore it is of
basic necessity for the students of anthropology to learn and
know the fundamentals of drawing and description of human
bones.
Procedures for drawing and description of bones:
The basic requirements for drawing a bone include a ruler,
a well sharpened pencil, a rubber (eraser) and a drawing
sheet of appropriate size corresponding to the size of the note
book. Before we directly start drawing the bone, first of all
draw the bordering line on the paper where the drawing is to
be made. Then, after drawing the borderline, just on the right
hand top corner below the borderline you should keep a space
for writing the date on which the diagram is drawn. Along
with it in the middle portion just below the borderline you
have to write the name of the bone. After that you make a
virtual division of the drawing sheet, so that the required
views of the bones can be drawn proportionately in each
division. As for example if you want to represent the anterior,
posterior, medial and lateral views of the bone then divide the
drawing sheet into four virtual divisions wherein you can draw
each one view. Thereafter, you can start drawing in a
systematic way.
The drawing should be purely
free hand drawing.
should
be
However, it
proportionate
to
the
original bone. That means it should
neither be very large nor very
lengthy. You can use slight shading
of various parts of the bone like
condyles, facets, tuberosities, tubercles, fossa, foramen,
ridges, crests etc. so that the same is very clearly and
distinctly visible. After drawing, the next step is to label the
various parts of the bone. You should as far as possible use
dotted lines in labeling the various parts because solid lines
may often be confused as a part of the bone. Then after
labeling various parts of the bone you also have to labeled the
various views you have drawn such as anterior view, posterior
view, profile view, inferior view etc. And after labeling provide
a space for the teacher’s remark and signature at the bottom
right or left hand corner just above the border line.
For a systematic description of the bone, first of all, you
should carefully observe the bone, and identify the type of
skeleton, part of skeleton, type of bone by stating reasons,
and also anatomical position and location in the skeleton.
Then you can start elaborate systematic description of various
parts of the bone.
Systematic description of femur bone:
Type of skeleton :
the tissue.
Endoskeleton as it is found underneath
Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of
lower extremity.
Type of bone : A long bone because it possesses two
epiphyses (extremities) and a diaphysis
(shaft).
Location :
thigh.
Vertically located in the
Name of bone : Human femur bone
(thigh bone).
General description:
Human femur bone is the longest, strongest and heaviest
bone of human skeleton. Its main function is suppoting the
body’s weight during walking, standing and running. The bone
articulates with acetabulum of hip bone superiorly, and with
patella and tibia inferiorly. Femur bone being a long bone, has
three parts- upper extremity, lower extremity and a shaft in
between.
Anatomical description:
Upper epiphysis of femur includes the head, neck, greater
trochanter, lesser trochanter, intertrochanteric crest and
intertrochanteric line. The head of the femur is more than half
of a sphere, oriented medially upward and slightly forward. It
articulates with the acetabulum of hip bone. There is a
roughened pit called fovea situated just below and behind the
centre of the head. The head is connected with the shaft by a
short tubular structure neck. There is a large, blunt non
articular prominence called greater trochanter at the upper
part of the junction of the neck with the shaft on the lateral,
proximal part of femur. There is another blunt prominent
tubercle called lesser trochanter on the posterior femoral
surface just inferior to the point where the neck joins the
shaft. The rough crest that passes between the lesser and
greater trochanter on the posterior surface is called
intertrochanteric crest while the rough line that passes
between the lesser and greater trochanter on the anterior
surface is called intertrochanteric line.
The shaft is the more or less cylindrical portion of the bone
which connects the upper end with the lower end. It is
narrowest in the middle and more expanded distally and
proximally. The wide flat triangular area of the posterior distal
end of shaft of femur is called popliteal surface. It has three
borders medial, lateral and posterior. The medial and lateral
borders are rounded and ill defined, whereas, the posterior
border called linea aspera is roughened ridge which forms two
distinct medial and lateral lips at the lower part of the shaft.
The shaft also has three surfaces viz. medial, lateral and
anterior.
Lower epiphysis is widely expanded and forming two
condyles- lateral condyle and medial condyle. Anteriorly these
two condyles are united and forms a large articular surface of
patella called patellar surface. Posteriorly the two condyles
are separated by a deep groove called intercondylar fossa or
intercondylar notch. Convexities are seen on both the lateral
and medial condyles which are called lateral epicondyle and
medial epicondyle respectively.
Side identification:
1. The upper end of the femur should be proximal in position.
Therefore the head of the femur should face medially, forward
and upward.
2. Linea aspera – a prominent ridge which runs along the
concavity of the posterior side of the shaft should face
backward. In other words, the convex surface of the shaft
should face forward in position.
3. The lower end should face downward with the larger one of
the two condyles i.e medial condyle facing medially.
Systematic description of tibia bone:
Type of skeleton :
the tissue.
Endoskeleton as it is found underneath
Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of lower
extremity.
Type of bone : A long bone because
it
possesses
two
epiphyses
(extremities) and a diaphysis (shaft).
Location : Vertically located medial
bone in the lower leg.
Name of bone : Human tibia bone
(shin bone).
General description:
The lower leg of human body has two bones. One of them
is medial and the other is lateral in position. Tibia is the
medial larger bone of the two lower leg bones. Its main
function is receiving the body weight of the upper parts of the
body and transmitting the same to the foot through ankle. It
articulates with femur and fibula at the proximal end, and
with fibula and ankle bones at the distal end. Tibia being a
long bone has two epiphyses and one diaphysis. The body of
the bone is prismatic in form, expanded above and slightly
enlarged below.
Anatomical description:
The upper end of tibia has two expanded condyles – lateral
condyle and medial condyle. The medial condyle is larger of
the two. The superior surface of the condyles are provided
with concave and smooth articular surfaces separated by an
eminence- intercondylar eminence. Posteriorly the condyles
are separated by popliteal notch, Anteriorly the tuberosities
form a continuous and flattened surface – tubercle.
The shaft is fairly straight, prismatic and triangular above
and continues to decrease till the most at lower ¼. It has
three borders- anterior (tubercle to anterior margin of inner
malleolus), medial (back part of medial tuberosity to posterior
inner malleolus) and lateral (front of fibular articular facet and
bifurcates below). It has three surfaces- internal, external and
posterior.
Lower end has five surfaces viz. anterior, posterior, medial,
lateral and inferior. The distal end is also provided with a
strong process projecting downward called medial malleolus
which forms a medial knob at the ankle.
Side Identification:
To identify whether the given tibia is either left or right
tibia, we may take into consideration the following points.
1. The upper expanded ends possessing lateral and medial
condyles should be superior in position
2. The popliteal notch on the upper end should face
posteriorly
3. Medial maleolus should be medial and inferior in position
4. The anterior border of the shaft is most prominent and
crest- like.
Systematic description of fibula bone:
Type of skeleton :
the tissue
Endoskeleton as it is found underneath
Part of skeleton : Appendicular part as it is the bone of
lower extremity
Type of bone : A long bone because it possesses two
epiphyses
(extremities)
and
a
diaphysis (shaft).
Location : Vertically located lateral
bone of lower leg
Name of bone : Human fibula bone
(shin bone)
General Description:
The lower leg of human body has two bones. One of them
is medial and the other is lateral in position. Fibula is the
lateral larger bone of the two lower leg bones. It articulates
with femur and tibia at the proximal end, and with ankle
bones at the distal end. Tibia being a long bone has two
epiphyses and one diaphysis. The body of the bone is lean
and thin.
Anatomical Description:
The upper end of the fibula which is known as head is
irregular quadrate in form. It is slightly expanded in all
directions. The superior surface bears a circular facet for
articulation with lateral condyle of tibia. The apex of the head
(styloid process) projects upward from its posterolateral
aspect. The constriction below the head is neck.
The shaft is slender and has three borders - anterior,
posterior and medial, three surfaces -medial, lateral,
posterior.
The lower end of fibula projects downward forming a
structure known as lateral malleolus.