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Expansion of the Military and Civil War The Decline of the Roman Republic 400 BCE – 27 CE Timeline for Ancient Rome • Kingship: 750 to 509 BCE • Early Republic: 509-287 BCE • Middle Republic: 287-133 BCE – Punic Wars • Socioeconomic & political impact • Cultural impact: transformation of religion • Late Republic: 133-27 BCE • Empire: 27 BCE – 476 CE Unification of Italy 450-250 What impact did warfare likely have on the Roman Republic? A. It became more democratic B. It became much poorer C. Military discipline became central to Roman culture D. It changed the distribution of power in the republic, with generals becoming more powerful Which of the following is the necessary component of a republic? A. Separation of powers B. Loyalty to the state C. Rule of law D. Representative government E. Something else The Oath of the Horatii – Patriotic Duty The Twelve Tables Roman Law c. 450 BCE Publius Cornelius Tacitus 56-117 CE Based on Agricola, what topics engaged Tacitus’s interests How did Tacitus’s perspective influence his writing? What events may have influenced that perspective? Centurions instilled discipline in Roman legionaries Discuss Tacitus • Given that Tacitus was born in the first century CE, what can his writings tell us about the political culture of early Rome? • What was Tacitus’s attitude toward the political system during his lifetime? • What was his attitude toward his father-inlaw? Which of the following was a central topic of Agricola? A. The Roman conquest of Britain B. The Roman Conquest of Gaul C. The Roman Defeat by Herman the German D. The Roman struggle against the Cimbri What developments did the introduction to Tacitus highlight as having a big influence on Rome between 300 and 100 BCE? A. The invasions of the Celts and the Germans B. The Punic Wars C. The rise of the Plebeian Assembly D. The rise of a class of wealthy nonpatricians, known as equites, or knights What did Tacitus admire about Agricola A. His sense of moderation and proportion B. His recklessness in war C. His drive to succeed at any cost D. His admiration for the Britons’ attachment to peace What was Tacitus’ attitude toward the barbarians to the North? Why was this topic so pressing during his lifetime? How did the political climate during his lifetime influence his perspective? What was Tacitus’s attitude toward peace? How did he describe the Britons? Centurions instilled discipline in Roman legionaries Unification of Italy 450-250 Samnites Cornicen Legionary Standard bearers: Signifer & Aquilifer The Alps Domitian and Vespasian The Flavian rulers of the late first century Hannibal’s Victories in Italy 218-216 BCE Tiberius and Caius Gracchus Gaius Marius 157 – 86 BCE Lucius Sulla 138 - 78 BCE Gaius Julius Caesar 100-44 BCE Which Roman principle partly inspired him to write about his father-in-law’s life A. The separation of powers B. The rule of law C. Reverence for ancestors D. The glory of Rome The Republican Empire: Overview • The Romans maintained their republican traditions for hundreds of years as they expanded their political influence throughout the Italian peninsula • However, as the wars of aggression brought their citizen soldiers further from home, especially during the Punic Wars, the social underpinnings of the republic began to falter • Increasingly Rome became the home of a landless mass of dispossessed citizens who relied on government support for survival Background on the Roman Army • Highly organized – Command structure • Highly Specialized functions – Layout of the Camps • Earthen walls • Replicated structure • Provided basis for many permanent cities – Engineering • • • • • Stone walls Aqueducts Siege craft Ramparts Bridges and roads Background on the Roman Army • Training exercises in the Roman Army was no different from combat except for the amount of bloodshed; in some ways it was actually harder – Double weighted swords and javelins – 20 mile marches with weapons, armor, and equipment • Virtually all soldiers knew at least the rudiments of construction engineering from ditch digging and wall building to the construction of canals and aqueducts • To join a legion, one had to be a Roman citizen, although by the first century BCE this requirement was frequently evaded Background on the Roman Army • Between the early years of the republic and the first century BCE, a full tour of service in the legions had increased from seven to 20 years • Soldiers were paid directly by their legionary commander, the legatus; this practice increased but did not guarantee loyalty to the legatus in times of crisis • Discipline in the Roman army was intense – Its most brutal form of punishment was decimation, flogging to death, usually reserved for those who fled in battle The Roman Army: First Century BCE • Roman Legions – 28 throughout the Empire – Known for flexibility in battle – Infantry carried javelins and short, broad swords – Grew in size from approximately 3500 to 6000 soldiers during first century BCE – Proportion of cavalry increased from 1/7th to ¼ of fighting force – Led by a legatus who commanded • 10 cohorts, each under control of a senior centurion • 60 centurions who originally exercised command over 100 soldiers (later 80) • six tribunes who handled administrative issues; five of these were from the equestrian class; one from the senatorial class – Centurions had virtually limitless power over their men; they carried a staff as a symbol of their authority Conquest 400-250 BCE • Fist major conquest occurred in early fourth century • Between that victory and 220 BCE, the Romans gained control of all of the Italian peninsula; their peace terms varied significantly – enslavement – grants of partial citizenship – alliances • All conquered peoples were required to provide military aid in time of need; Rome did not tax its Italian subjects • Wars of aggression were presented to the people as – necessary for the defense of the republic – a sign of the gods’ favor for Rome Conquest 250-150 BCE • The Punic Wars - a series of wars that pitted Rome against Carthage, its powerful rival in North Africa – First War (264-241) erupted when Carthage made inroads into Sicily; Rome gains control of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia; Rome expands its naval capabilities – Second War (218-201) - The daring Carthaginian general Hannibal marches troops and elephants over the alps and almost captures Rome; Rome eventually sacks Carthage – Third War(149-146) - Rome levels Carthage and establishes Roman government in N. Africa Consequences of Conquest:150 BCE • Roads built throughout the peninsula • Rome gains control of western Mediterranean commerce • Trade and dissemination of Roman culture and language • Decline of the yeoman farmer – normal agrarian patterns disrupted – as wars lasted longer and took men further away from home, the number of fatherless and landless families increases – many of these families move to Rome and and require public support for their survival – the population of the city swells to over 200,000 by 300 BCE Consequences of Conquest c. 100 BCE • During the last half of the second century BCE, a popular political faction championed the cause of the landless Roman soldier • The wealthiest members of Roman society generally opposed measures aimed at restoring land to the yeoman farmer/soldier and hired thugs to assassinate the Grachus brothers, the leaders of the popular faction • From approximately 133 BCE until 44 BCE, Roman politics became increasingly violent until it erupted in civil war after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE Leaders During the Republican Empire • After the death of the Gracchi, Roman generals and consuls became increasingly influential in politics beginning in the late second century BCE (c. 100 BCE) when republican institutions increasingly lost power • By the time of Julius Caesar, the republican form of Roman government had given way to a series of Army generals assuming power in order to “save the republic” – The power of the senate weakened – Troops in Rome – Generals, such as Marius and Sulla, rely on booty to command loyalty of their troops, who ensured political power and occupied Rome Growth of the Military • From the time of Julius Caesar (50 BCE) to Diocletian (300 CE) the Roman Army consisted of about 150,000 legionaries (approximately 30 legions) and 150,000 auxiliaries • Auxiliaries were non-Roman citizens organized into 500 man cohorts under Roman commanders • Auxiliaries often fought on the front lines • Auxiliary soldiers received about ½ the pay of the legionaries and attained Roman citizenship upon retirement Summary • Rome occupied a strategic location in the middle of Italy and in the middle of the Mediterranean • By the second half of the third century BCE (c. 220), it had gained control over Italy; during the next 200 years, it exercised imperial power over the entire Mediterranean basin • This spectacular growth placed enormous strains on the republican social and political customs and institutions Summary • During the transition from republic to Empire, civil wars wrought destruction and havoc on the city of Rome and the people of the Italian peninsula • Rome’s inability to maintain its republican institutions in the wake of its imperial acquisitions induced many historians to assume that republics must necessarily be limited in size Summary • As the size of the Roman state grew, the opportunities for accumulating wealth through political office also grew • By the second century BCE political offices were increasingly held by those who sought wealth and power; the political ideals of the early republic, which included serving the interests of the common people, had given way to power plays cloaked in republican rhetoric • In addition, violence and factional interests became increasingly common during the last 100 years of the Republic (150-50 BCE)