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Learning
Relative permanent changes in an
organism’s behavior resulting from an
interaction with the environment.
Who was Wundt?
How long would it take you to “learn” the
material for the first exam?
Classical Conditioning or
Respondent Conditioning
Ivan P. Pavlov
Russian Physiologist—not a
psychologist—Nobel Prize Winner.
Some behaviors happen naturally
You do not have to learn how to blink.
An Unconditioned Stimulus brings about
an Unconditioned Response or Reflex
Pair this UCS (US) with a neutral stimulus
and what happens?
Learning to give the response to a
new Stimulus
Conditioned
Stimulus when paired with
an Unconditioned Stimulus over a
period of trials will bring about a
Conditioned Response
Joe (Neutral) Blow (UCS) BLINK
(UCR)
Joe (CS) Blink (CR)
The Paradigm
CS UCS UCR. Proper way for
Classical Conditioning to occur.
Automatic response elicited by the
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS or US).
Reflex-- an innate, involuntary behavior
Reflex
elicited or caused by an antecedent
environmental event.
Examples:
1. Blushing
2. Shivering
3. Being startled
4. Salivating
5. Others?
CR and UCR are rarely identical.
They are Similar but rarely Identical.
CR is the body’s preparation for the US.
Fear Conditioning
Electric shockshock-animal squeals and its
heart beats faster this is the UR.
When the animal sees the CS its
response (CR) is different. It freezes,
tenses its muscles and its heartbeat
slows. This reaction is a fearful
anticipation.
Dog salivating
UCR is much richer in digestive
enzymes in comparison to salivation
in response to the tone or bell (CS).
CS is a signal to “get ready.” The UCS
is about to arrive.
Most phobias have their source in Classical
Conditioning.
What are some examples of classical
conditioning in real life?
Taste Aversion?
Advertising?
Christmas commercials.
Conditioned Fear?
Watson’s Little Albert.
Whenever Jim’s father drinks too much, he
gets very violent and beats Jim severely.
This has happened on several occasions.
Now, just the smell of beer makes Jim
fearful.
(UCS) Beating
(UCR) Pain
Smell of beer + beating (CS) + (UCS)
(CS) Smell of beer and (CR) Fear
2) The first time Janice ate German
Chocolate cake was at her best friend’s
birthday party. The night after the party,
Janice got a head cold and got so sick she
missed three days of school. Now, she
can’t even look at German Chocolate cake
without feeling nauseous.
(US) Head cold
(UR) Getting sick
German Chocolate Cake + Head Cold (CS)
+ (UCS)
(CS) German Chocolate Cake and (CR)
Nausea
Higher (Secondary) Order Conditioning
Acquisition (Reinforcement)
Extinction
Rest—what does this mean?
Spontaneous Recovery
Why does this happen?
Behavior did not completely extinguish.
Did we learn a NEW behavior?
What would this graph look like?
Operant Conditioning or Instrumental
Conditioning.
John Watson, B. F. Skinner
Learning (emitting NOT eliciting) a new
behavior.
Shaping through Successive
Approximation.
Teaching a child to talk or walk or
write.
R SRf+
How do we teach a dog to sit?
Skinner Box
Principles that apply to both.
Discrimination and Generalization
Graphs
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous versus Partial or
Intermittent
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
What happens with extinction when we
use each of these schedules?
What is a partial or intermittent schedule
of reinforcement?
Skinner developed these as a result of a
need to save food pellets.
Reinforcement and
Punishment
What is a reinforcement?
What is a punishment?
Positives and Negatives.
Give (ADD) versus Take Away (REMOVE)
Think of it as a math function rather
than good or bad.
Reinforcement
Description
Example
Positive
ADD a positive Getting a hug,
Reinforcement
stimulus
smile, or praise
Negative
Reinforcement
REMOVE an
aversive
stimulus
Fastening seat
belt to turn off
car buzzer
Punishment
Description
Positive
Punishment
Negative
Punishment
Example
ADD a negative Getting hit or
stimulus
slapped
REMOVE a
pleasant
stimulus
Take away the
car
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Sensation
Process by which sensory receptors and
the nervous system receive and
represent stimulus from the
environment.
Perception
Awareness or interpretation of
sensation.
Process of organizing and interpreting
sensory information enabling us to
recognize and give meaning to objects
and events.
More complex compared to sensation.
Transduction
Transforming stimulus energies into
neural impulses
Retina in the eye and cochlea in the ear
THE EYE
Cornea
The transparent tissue covering the
front of the eye. Look at your eye in the
mirror. You will notice a clear surface
covering the iris (the colored part of the
eye) and pupil. This is the cornea.
The cornea is as smooth and clear as
glass but as strong and durable as
plastic. It helps the eye in two ways:
The cornea provides a physical barrier
that shields the inside of the eye from
germs, dust, and other harmful
matter.
It acts as the eye's outermost lens.
Iris
The colored part of the eye
Helps regulate the amount of light
entering the eye.
When there is bright light, the iris closes
the pupil to let in less light. And when
there is low light, the iris opens up the
pupil to let in more light.
Similar to the aperture of a camera.
Pupil
The dark center opening in the
middle of the iris.
Changes size to adjust for the
amount of light available (smaller
for bright light and larger for low
light).
Similar to the iris-iris--Like
Like the
aperture in most 35 mm cameras
which lets in more or less light
depending upon the conditions.
Sclera - The white outer coat of the eye,
surrounding the iris. Protects the eye.
Vitreous Humor - The clear, gel type of
substance which fills the central cavity of
the eye.
Optic Nerve - A bundle of more than a
million nerve fibers carrying visual
messages from the retina to the brain.
Lens - Focuses light rays onto the retina.
The lens is transparent, and can be
replaced if necessary. Our lens
deteriorates as we age, resulting in the
need for reading glasses.
Retina – contains the sense cell for vision.
RODS AND CONES
MORE RODS COMPARED TO CONES
120 MILLION RODS
6.5 MILLION CONES
HOW DISTRIBUTED ON THE RETINA
CONES AT THE FOVEA
Color vision
RODS AT THE PERIPHERY
Cannot detect color
More for night vision
Depth Cues
Monocular Cues
Primary
Primary—
—nonnonlearned
Accommodation
Secondary
Secondary---Learned
Learned
Texture gradient
Linear
perspective
Aerial
perspective
Interposition
Binocular CuesCues-both
are primary
Convergence
Retinal Disparity
Texture Gradient
Relative Height
Linear Perspective
B
A
B
A
Aerial Perspective
Perspective--minimized
on a clear day
Interposition
Convergence
M.C. Escher
Julian Beever
3-D Optical Illusions
Human Visible Spectrum
THE EAR
The semicircular canals and vestibule
function to sense movement
(acceleration and deceleration) and
static position. The three semicircular
canals lie perpendicular to each
other.
Why perpendicular?
Altered States
Sleep and Dreaming
Depends on age and habit
4-5 dreams a night
About 90 minutes total
First dreams are shortshort-get longer as
sleep progresses
REM
Extension of every day life
External stimulation can effect-effect--TV
TV
What happens after one day without
dreaming?
Two to three nights
Seven nights
Sleep Deprivation Psychosis
Need to catch up
Starts dreaming almost immediately
• 75 yearyear-olds have spent 1818-24 years
sleeping and 55-7 years dreaming
• Human record: 11 days without sleep.
Rats kept from sleeping for 22-5 weeks die
(depressed immune system)
ESP
Telepathy
“Reading” someone’s mind/thoughts.
Psychokinesis
Moving objects without touching
them.
Precognition
“Reading” the future.
Clairvoyance
Via “unusual” sensation.
Fallacy of Positive Instances
Drugs and Behavior
Psychoactive Drugs
Alter human functioning
Give me examples
Alcohol
Most abused recreational Drug
Central Nervous System Depressant
BAC
Implicated in about 50% of all auto
fatalities
Disorders
Physiological dependence
First thing that is lost when we drink is
our judgment
Standard Drink
Depends really on the proof of the
alcohol
1 ½ oz. of hard liquor, 6 oz. of wine, 12
oz. of beer
.08 levellevel-presumptive level of
intoxication
.25
.35
.50
Barbiturates
Physiological dependence
“Downers” or depressants
How to get off of them – slowly!
Phenobarbital, Seconal
Amphetamines
“Uppers” or stimulants
Psychological Dependence
Benzedrine, Dexedrine, Methodize,
Cocaine
Narcotics
Analgesics or pain killers
Greek word for stupor
Bind at opiate receptors
Pain meds, heroin
Cocaine and Marijuana often classified
as "narcotics" in the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA) neither bind
opiate receptors nor produce morphinemorphinelike effects
Physiological dependence
Hallucinogens
LSD, mescaline (peyote cactus),
psilocybin (certain mushrooms)
Effects are unpredictable-unpredictable--depends
depends on
amount taken, the user's personality,
mood, and expectations, and the
surroundings in which the drug is used.
Usually, the user feels the first effects of
the drug 3030-90 minutes after taking it.
Flashbacks
Marijuana
Cannabis sativa
THC (delta(delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol)
Most commonly abused illicit drug
More effects on body than smoking
2005-2005
--16.5%
16.5% of eighth graders, 34.1% of
tenth graders, and 44.8% of twelfth graders
reported lifetime use of marijuanamarijuana-decrease
Schedule I substance under the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA).
Schedule I drugs are classified as having a high
potential for abuse
Hypnosis
Researchers agree on the following:
Hypnotic responsiveness depends more
on the efforts and qualities of the
person being hypnotized than on skill of
the hypnotist.
Hypnotized people cannot be forced to
do things against their will.
Feats performed under hypnosis can be
performed by motivated people without
hypnosis.
Hypnosis does not increase the accuracy
of memory