Download The First Years of the Union (1797-1809)

The First Years of the Union (1797-1809)
General Summary
When George Washington announced he would not seek reelection in 1796, the nation was more divided than
it had ever been. The battle for power between Republicans and Federalists was the primary political reality of
the period. In 1796, the Federalists were winning this battle, and controlled Congress, the judiciary, and the
presidency under newly elected John Adams. Adams set out to continue the development of the infant nation
and solidify Federalist power and principles of government. His first challenge came in the realm of
international relations. In response to the seizure of American ships at sea, Adams began what became known
as the Quasi-war, in which neither the US nor France declared war against one another but during which the
two sides engaged in naval conflict.
In preparation for a possible open war with France, Adams built up the military through heavy taxes and heavy
expenditures. In addition, the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts were drafted
to protect the United States from foreign threats to national security, but their effect was to imprison or deport
immigrants without a fair trial, and to brutally silence all political opposition. Outraged at the gall of the
Federalists, the population voted overwhelmingly Republican in the election of 1800, in which Thomas
Jefferson emerged victorious.
Jefferson would later describe his election in 1800 as a "revolution" because of the sharp swing in political
ideology it signaled in America. Indeed, Jefferson quickly set about tearing down the remnants of Federalist
government, beginning with the army and the accumulated national debt. One of the most prominent forums in
which he attacked Federalist power was in the judicial system, even going so far as to support the
impeachment of two federal judges.
In 1803 Jefferson engineered the Louisiana Purchase, more than doubling the size of the US. The Louisiana
Purchase may have been the most important event in the first half-century of American history, immediately
opening the West to exploration and settlement. Lewis and Clark, now legends of American history, were the
most well known explorers of the Louisiana Territory.
However, the Louisiana Purchase also opened the United States to foreign conflict, as many nations strove to
achieve dominance in the affairs of North America. Shortly after the US took possession of the new territory,
disputes arose with Spain over its borders. In an effort to solve America's territorial problems, Thomas
Jefferson entered into negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte of France, who saw in the dispute a chance to
strengthen France's influence in North America and manipulate international affairs favorably.
Jefferson's willingness to engage in international politics with the conniving Bonaparte spurred some
Republicans to leave the party and form a faction known as the Tertium Quids, which while they did not
seriously challenge Jefferson's power or that of the Republican majority, showed that disunity was a possibility
within the Republican Party and had to be guarded against. Another challenge to Jefferson and to the nation
was the Aaron Burr conspiracy, an ill-fated attempt by the former vice president to attack Texas and secede
from the Union with settlers from the southwest frontier. These two internal challenges well in hand, Jefferson
was able to turn his attention to increasing tensions between the US and both Britain and France.
Britain and France, at war with one another, each tried to use the United States as a pawn with which to harm
the other. The United States found itself the victim of an economic war, its merchant ships seized by both
nations and its neutrality in jeopardy. Jefferson responded in 1807 with the Embargo Act which isolated the US
from the world economically. Though he hoped to force France, and especially Britain, into respecting US
neutrality, the US was the first nation to give in, lifting the Embargo Act in 1809 with nothing more than a
depressed economy to show for it. Though Jefferson's final endeavor as president was a distinct failure, he is
generally considered a success, and the Republicans continued to enjoy the support of the majority of the
American people after he left office.
Context
During the period from the drafting of the Constitution in 1787 to George Washington's Farewell Address of
1796, the young United States went about the early stages of the experiment of democratic government.
Washington's presidency set precedents for operating procedure in the national government, and each branch
of the government developed and explored its particular role. During Washington's eight years in office, the
nation transformed from a loose association of states into a cohesive unit, vested in its collective national
government. However, the close quarters created by governmental cohesion spawned the early signs of
political division. Alexander Hamilton's policy initiatives as Secretary of Treasury, perhaps more than anything
else, brought the sharply differing political ideologies of different segments of the nation to light.
Punctuated by Thomas Jefferson's resignation from Washington's cabinet in dismay at the administration's
efforts to consolidate power in the central government, politicians and nation split into two rival political parties,
Republicans, who opposed strong central government, and Federalists, who were in favor of a strong national
government. Though the Federalists were well entrenched in their position of power, the Republicans began to
mount a greater and greater challenge. The struggle between the two parties, largely defined by the differing
economic and social modalities of North and South, was the primary political reality of the day at the time of
Washington's Farewell Address. The conflict between the parties would characterize the years to come.
By 1808, when Thomas Jefferson decided not to seek a third term in office, the conflict between Federalists
and Republicans had all but evaporated. Despite some remnants of Federalist power, primarily in the judiciary
branch, Republicans had clearly taken control of the national government. John Adams' presidency had
convinced many of the folly of Federalism, and Thomas Jefferson's election in 1800 had been the result.
Republican power grew and matured during Jefferson's presidency. Jefferson left these Republicans, led by his
successor, James Madison, with a number of issues to deal with on the national scale.
Perhaps Thomas Jefferson's greatest legacy was the doubling of the size of the US through the Louisiana
Purchase of 1803. The acquisition of Louisiana by the United States was both a boon and a source of trouble
for the US. The land to the West of the Mississippi would provide farmland and homesteads for future
Americans, and open up further westward expansion. As the US increased its economic base, tapping into the
resources of the west, and its population grew with ample room for settlement, the nation's power and prestige
as an international entity expanded. However, out of the new Louisiana Territory grew many sources of political
controversy, both domestic and international. Internationally, the Louisiana Purchase meant that the US now
held a larger part in the somewhat disputed western lands of North America. Conflicts with Spanish and British
forces also present in the west became commonplace, and led to violent struggles on a number of occasions.
Additionally, conflicts with the Native American tribes, which inhabited the Louisiana Territory, were inevitable
and became a major feature of westward expansion. Finally, the issue of the legality of slavery in the new
Territory and in the states which came out of it proved so divisive that disagreement over this issue continued
throughout the first half of the nineteenth century and was the clear precursor to the Civil War.
Additionally, Thomas Jefferson left office at a time of great international unrest. The US had been caught up in
the affairs of both sides in the war between Britain and France, and, at the time of the election of 1808, was
desperately trying to maintain its neutrality in the face of naval challenges from both great powers. Jefferson,
and his successor, Madison, both failed to bring about a peaceful conclusion to this conflict, and the result was
the outbreak of the War of 1812, a conflict that would ravage US lands and spur the rebirth of sharp political
division.
Important Terms, People, and Events
Terms
Alien and Sedition Acts - The 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts consisted of four acts dealing with the protection
of national security, the Alien Enemies Act, the Alien Friends Act, the Naturalization Act, and the Sedition Act.
While Federalists claimed these acts were essential for national security, Republicans countered that they were
politically motivated and served only to deny Americans of their guaranteed rights to fair trial and free speech.
The Alien and Sedition Acts were the undoing of the Federalist Party, as Thomas Jefferson won the presidency
in 1800 based largely on popular dissatisfaction with the acts.
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair - The peak of British disrespect for American neutrality at sea, on June 22,
1807, The British naval frigate HMS Leopard followed the American naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of
Norfolk harbor in Virginia, and opened fire upon it after a request to board had been denied. The Chesapeake,
not prepared for battle, lost three men and had twenty wounded, and permitted the British to board. The British
naval officers boarded, seized four men who had deserted the royal navy, hanged them from a yardarm, and
sailed away. Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act.
Embargo Act - In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson endorsed the Embargo Act, passed
on December 22, 1807, which shut America off from the world economically by forbidding ships from leaving
American ports to trade with other nations. He hoped the embargo would put economic pressure on the
French, and especially the British. It did, but America suffered far more due to its economic isolation, and the
Embargo Act was repealed on March 3, 1809.
Federalists - The Federalists believed in a strong central government at the expense of state power. The
nation's first two presidents, George Washington and John Adams, were Federalists, and during their terms, all
branches of the national government were in Federalist hands.
Interposition - In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Kentucky and Virginia adopted resolutions,
anonymously written by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which asserted that the states retained the
power of interposition, which gave them the right to determine the constitutionality of congressional measures.
Judicial Review - Established by Chief Justice John Marshall in Marbury v. Madison, the principle of judicial
review held that the Supreme Court could declare an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Marbury v. Madison - John Adams made a number of appointments to federal justice positions on his way
out of office. One of those, the appointment of William Marbury as justice of the peace in the District of
Columbia, was not delivered by midnight of his last night in office. Secretary of state James Madison refused to
deliver the commission to Marbury, who asked the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus ordering
Madison to do so. Chief Justice John Marshall denied Marbury the writ, ruling that the Judiciary Act of 1789
was unconstitutional in granting the Supreme Court the power to issue such a writ. This established the
principle of judicial review.
Midnight Appointments - Between December 12, 1800, when it became clear that he would not win
reelection, and the day of Jefferson's inauguration, March 4, 1801, Adams appointed a significant number of
federal judges. These midnight appointments consisted exclusively of Federalists, most of who had previous
political or familial ties to prominent party members. Though Jefferson originally declared that he would not
dismiss any Federalist appointees, he later revised this statement to protect only the appointees who did not
fall into this category of midnight appointments.
Quasi-war - Quasi-war was the term that became widely used to describe French and American naval
conflicts which took place between 1798 and 1800. Though neither nation declared war on the other, each
carried out naval operations against the other. John Adams sparked the Quasi-war in response to French
aggression at sea.
Republicans - Republicans centered their political ideology on the states' rights doctrine. They believed in
distributing governmental power to the states rather than concentrating it in the hands of the central
government. The Republican Party became a political force in the later years of the Washington presidency,
and was a constant thorn in Adams' side. In 1800, Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, took control of the
national government and would maintain that control for decades.
Tertium Quids - The Quids were a faction of the Republican Party led by John Randolph, which split off from
the main party in 1806 in disapproval of Jefferson's negotiations with Napoleon Bonaparte to purchase West
Florida. The Quids never presented a substantial challenge to the main Republican Party.
People
John Adams - John Adams was America's second president, from 1797 to 1801. A Federalist, his most
notable actions in office were the undertaking of the Quasi-war with France and the passage of the Alien and
Sedition Acts.
Aaron Burr - Aaron Burr ran for president in 1800, chosen by the party to be Jefferson's vice president.
However, every Republican elector voted for Jefferson and Burr so a tie ensued that had to be resolved by the
House of Representatives. After a considerable struggle in the House, and Burr's refusal to withdraw, Jefferson
became president, and Burr was politically dead. Later, Burr would attempt to lead a bizarre conspiracy to
attack Texas and secede from the Union. Burr also eventually killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel.
Albert Gallatin - Gallatin was Jefferson's secretary of treasury, and played an important role in undoing many
of the financial initiatives of the Federalists, including cutting taxes and expenditures, lowering the national
debt, and divesting the government of its stock holdings in the Bank of the United States.
Thomas Jefferson - The leader of the Republican Party, Jefferson was president from 1801 to 1809, during
which time he organized the national government by Republican ideals, doubled the size of the nation, and
struggled to maintain American neutrality.
Lewis and Clark - Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, most often known collectively as Lewis and Clark,
were commissioned by Jefferson to explore the new territory of the Louisiana Purchase. They traveled 3,000
miles in two and a half years, collecting scientific data and specimens, and charting the territory to the west of
the Mississippi. Their journey spurred much interest throughout the nation in further exploration and settlement
in the West.
James Madison - James Madison was Jefferson's secretary of state and chosen successor to the
presidency. Madison was an ardent Republican, and anonymously authored the Virginia Resolution, which
denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts.
John Marshall - John Marshall was the chief Justice of the Supreme Court during Jefferson's presidency. His
most notable decision during this time came in Marbury v. Madison, in which he asserted the principle of
judicial review, which stated that the Supreme Court could deem an act of Congress unconstitutional.
Zebulon Pike - Pike earned the nickname "the lost pathfinder" due to his misadventures in exploring the
headwaters of the Mississippi, and later the Arkansas River. It is suspected by many that his true mission in
exploring the Arkansas may have been to investigate Spanish positions south of the American territory. Pike's
maps of the southern portion of the Louisiana Territory proved invaluable to future explorers and settlers.
John Randolph - John Randolph, a Republican leader in the House of Representatives, led the faction which
became known as the Tertium Quids, breaking from the main party in disapproval of Jefferson's actions in
regard to West Florida.
Sacajawea - During their first winter, at a Mandan Indian village, Lewis and Clark hired as an interpreter a
French fur-trader, Toussaint Charbonneau, and his Indian wife Sacajawea. Though Charbonneau proved to be
only of limited help, Sacajawea was indispensable as a guide, especially during the crossing of the Bitteroot
Mountains in what is now southern Idaho. She showed the party how to forage for food, and was instrumental
in maintaining good relations with the Indian tribes of what is now the northwest US.
Charles de Tallyrand - Tallyrand was the French foreign minister during Jefferson's presidency. He was
instrumental in France's continued efforts to dominate and maipulate the US governments. In October 1797, it
was he who perpetrated the XYZ Affair, sending anonymous agents to meet an American diplomatic envoy and
demand a bribe for Tallyrand before he would meet with them. Later, Tallyrand would negotiate the Louisiana
Purchase, and after, attempt to stir up disputes between Spain and the US over the definitions of their borders
in North America.
James Wilkinson - James Wilkinson was the military commander of the Louisiana Territory; he sent Zebulon
Pike on his exploration missions. Heavily involved in espionage, it is known that Wilkinson was on Spain's
payroll for his part in trying to persuade southwestern settlers to secede from the Union. Wilkinson entered into
cahoots with Aaron Burr in Burr's attempted conspiracy, only to betray Burr to Jefferson.
Events
Election of 1800 - Thomas Jefferson called the election of 1800 "as real a revolution in the principles of our
government as that of 1776 was in its form." The election of 1800 marked the transition of power from
Federalists to Republicans, and began a period of tearing down the Federalist style of government and building
up a Republican framework.
Louisiana Purchase - Negotiated in April 1803, the Louisiana Purchase was one of the most important
events in US history. It doubled the size of the nation, opening the west to exploration and settlement. With the
Louisiana Purchase came the possibility of expansion and also the strife which would accompany the
admission of new states from that region. Additionally, the Louisiana Purchase created a period during which
the US could not detangle itself from foreign affairs, as its borders were increasingly changing and called into
question.
XYZ Affair - In response to continued French aggression at sea, John Adams sent a diplomatic envoy to
France to negotiate for peace in 1797, just after a coup d'etat in the directory. Charles de Tallyrand, the new
French foreign minister, refused to meet with the US delegation, instead sending three anonymous agents, X,
Y, and Z. The agents delivered the message that Tallyrand would not begin talks until he received $250,000 for
himself, and France received a $12 million loan. This widely publicized (in America) attempt at extortion
aroused public outrage among the American people, some of whom called for war.
Timeline
March 4, 1797: John Adams Inaugurated Adams succeeds George Washington and becomes the second
president of the United States after a tight election. Thomas Jefferson, the runner-up, becomes vice president.
October 1797: The XYZ Affair French foreign minister Charles de Tallyrand refuses to meet with an American
diplomatic envoy unless paid $250,000 for himself and guaranteed a $12 million loan for France. The American
public is outraged.
June - July 1798: Alien and Sedition Acts Passed Adams signs the four measures that make up the Alien
and Sedition Acts into law, rousing staunch opposition from Republicans and even some Federalists. The Alien
and Sedition Acts represent the height of Federalist expansion of the powers of national government.
November - December 1798: Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions are Adopted Kentucky and Virginia adopt
resolutions, written anonymously by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, which affirm the doctrine of states'
rights over the national government, and assert that states maintain the power of interposition, allowing them to
review the constitutionality of congressional measures.
October 1, 1800: Treaty of San Ildefonso Signed The Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed by France and Spain,
grants France ownership of the Louisiana Territory.
February 27, 1801: The Judiciary Act of 1801 is Passed The Judiciary Act of 1801 is passed, creating
sixteen new federal judgeships and reducing the number of Supreme Court justices from six to five, robbing
Jefferson of his first appointment.
March 4, 1801: Thomas Jefferson Inaugurated After a Republican victory in the election of 1800, Jefferson
becomes the nation's third president.
February 1803: John Marshall Delivers his Decision in Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court Chief Justice
Marshall decrees that the Judiciary Act of 1789 is unconstitutional in its affirmation of the right of the Supreme
Court to issue a writ of mandamus. This decision established the Supreme Court's power of judicial review.
December 20, 1803: US Takes Possession of Louisiana Eight months after the Louisiana Purchase is
negotiated in April, the US takes formal possession of the new territory, doubling the nation's size.
May 1804: Lewis and Clark Set Out Off from St. Louis After preparing over the winter, the famous
expedition, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark begins north on the Missouri River with a team of 45
military personnel.
November 7, 1805: Lewis and Clark Reach The Pacific Ocean Convention Having traveled over the
mountains in southern Idaho and down the Snake and Columbia Rivers, the expedition reaches the mouth of
the Columbia, on the Pacific Ocean, where they spend their second winter.
September 1806: Lewis and Clark Return to St. Louis The expedition returns intact to St. Louis, having
traveled 3,000 miles in just two and a half years, an unprecedented feat. Their return prompts great interest in
the west.
June 22, 1807: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair The British naval frigate HMS Leopard follows the American
naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of Norfolk harbor in Virginia, and opens fire upon it after a request to board
is denied. The Chesapeake, not prepared for battle, loses three men and has twenty wounded, and permits the
British to board. The British naval officers board, seize four men who had deserted the royal navy, hang them
from a yardarm, and sail away.
September 1, 1807: Aaron Burr Acquitted of Treason After his planned conspiracy to attack Texas and
secede from the Union fails, Burr is captured and tried for treason. Chief Justice Marshall rules that the
inoperative intent to divide the Union does not constitute treason, and Burr is acquitted.
December 22, 1807: The Embargo Act is Passed In response to the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, Jefferson
advocates the Embargo Act, which forbids ships to leave from American ports for trade with foreign ports. He
intends the embargo to work as peaceable coercion, forcing the British and French to respect American
neutrality at sea.
March 3, 1809: The Embargo Act is Repealed After over a year of economic suffering in the United States,
and the rise of vocal public criticism of the Embargo Act, the act is repealed, and replaced with a tamer nonintercourse law regarding France and Britain.
March 4, 1809: James Madison Inaugurated Though the nation was disappointed with Jefferson's final major
action in office, the Embargo Act, the Republicans remained the majority party, and James Madison easily won
the 1808 election, becoming the nation's fourth president in 1809.
The Election of 1796 and the Quasi-War
Summary
The first major political contest between the increasingly divided Republicans and Federalists, the election of
1796 saw the mobilization of both parties in campaigning efforts. The candidates were John Adams, supported
by the Federalists, and Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the Republican Party. Republicans had a firm hold on
the majority of the South, while Federalists were guaranteed victory in their traditional strongholds of New
England, New Jersey, and South Carolina. The key swing states were Pennsylvania and New York, which was
where most of the campaigning took place. Republicans, due largely to their targeting of recent immigrants,
took Pennsylvania, but Federalists were successful in New York. Therefore, John Adams became president,
winning the election by only 3 electoral votes. However, the Constitution, written with political parties out of
mind, stated that the second highest vote getter would become vice president. Jefferson therefore became vice
president under his political rival.
When Adams took office in 1797, France presented his first challenge. The French had seen Jay's Treaty,
between the US and Britain, as a signal that the US supported Britain in the ongoing war against France. The
French had put off retribution, hoping for a Jefferson administration which might be more friendly toward
France. Upon Jefferson's loss in the election, however, France began to seize American ships en route to
British ports. After a year of this, the French had attacked and plundered over 300 American ships. As a further
insult, France ordered that every American citizen captured aboard a British naval vessel be hanged.
Adams dispatched a peace commission to Paris to negotiate shortly after the beginning of these hostile
activities. However, in what became known as the XYZ Affair, Charles de Tallyrand, the French foreign
minister, refused to meet with the US delegation, instead sending three anonymous agents, X, Y, and Z. The
agents delivered the message that Tallyrand would not begin talks until he received $250,000 for himself, and
France received a $12 million loan. This widely publicized (in America) attempt at extortion aroused public
outrage among the American people, some of whom called for war. Riding this tide, the Federalists
overwhelmingly took the 1798 congressional elections.
In response to continued French aggression at sea, and outraged at the XYZ Affair, Congress began what
became known as the Quasi-war. 54 ships were armed and sent to protect Americans at sea. France and
America never officially declared war upon one another, but the conflict lasted from 1798 until 1800, during
which time the US navy seized 93 French privateers while only losing one ship. To aid the Americans, the
British navy began escorting American ships to port. Despite some misgivings on Adams' part, Congress tripled
the American army to 10,000 men in 1798, citing the need for readiness should a war break out with France.
Commentary
The Republicans were able to put up such a strong showing in the 1796 election, to a great extent, because of
the support of immigrants, most of them French and Irish, who were attracted to the pro-French, anti-British
sentiment associated with Republicanism. Though immigrants only composed two percent of the national
electorate, they were valuable allies because of the numbers in which they voted and their geographical
location. Many immigrants lived in the key states of Pennsylvania and New York, and could be counted upon to
be a vocal political presence. The election of 1796 solidified for good the lines along which the parties were
divided. Federalists were associated with strong central government, favored merchants and businessmen in
their policies, tended toward a pro-British foreign policy, and found their main political support in the northeast.
Republicans, on the other hand, were associated with the concept of states' rights and limited central
government, favored agriculture over industry, endorsed a pro-French, anti-British foreign policy, and found
their political support throughout the South.
The leaders of these two increasingly divided parties found themselves paired as president and vice president
after John Adams and Thomas Jefferson finished first and second in the voting of the electoral college. This
awkward situation arose because the framers of the Constitution had not anticipated the rise of political parties,
decrying them as selfish factions that would bring down the integrity of the government. The Constitution
stipulated that the presidential candidate who received the second-highest number of electoral votes would
become the vice president. It was not until 1804 that the Twelfth Amendment was ratified, prescribing that
presidential and vice-presidential candidates run as a pair. Meanwhile, Jefferson served as a relatively
powerless vice president under his political rival, but their relationship remained relatively amiable and the two
would become friends later in their lives.
Adams was well qualified to be president, having played a crucial role in American politics from the time of the
Revolutionary War. He was an intellectual, and a historical scholar, well versed in the art of government.
However, though he was a brilliant idealist, he had trouble relating to people. He could not instill the
unwavering personal loyalty that George Washington had so naturally commanded, and he could not prevail in
the emotional political debates often spawned by his contemporary statesmen. A reserved, intelligent man, he
failed to inspire the nation as a whole, and could not unify the rapidly splitting electorate.
Adams was aided by the surging support for Federalism that followed the XYZ Affair. The Federalist gains in
the midterm elections of 1798 gave Adams and his party far greater freedom to pursue their goals. While the
XYZ Affair no doubt hurt the reputation of the notoriously pro-French Republicans, they further injured
themselves politically by refusing to condemn the actions of the French. Federalists, on the other hand, were
quick to condemn, and thus rallied patriotic support to their cause. In 1798, by voting overwhelmingly
Federalist, the nation called for retaliation against France, which it got in the form of the Quasi-war.
Despite the rising tide of anti-Republican sentiment, Federalists continued to fear the advances of political
opposition. While the augmentation of troops in 1798 and the maintenance of these higher numbers into the
future was easily explained by the possibility of war with France, historians point to a possible ulterior motive for
fortifying the army. The combination of American and British attacks on French naval forces meant that by
1799, the French navy was not a serious threat. However, the army remained vigilant. The unspoken reason
for this vigilance was the fear of a civil war begun by the nation's growing numbers of Irish and French
immigrants. It was well known that the French government had made frequent overtures to Americans,
pleading with them to support the French cause. The French had, it was known, even gone so far as to suggest
that Americans who supported the French secede from the US and form a separate nation. It was in fear of
trouble from this group of French supporters that Federalists in Congress maintained increased numbers in the
army. Suspicion of treasonous undercurrents throughout the nation ran high.
The Alien and Sedition Acts
Summary
The Federalists, now controlling both the Senate and the House of Representatives, argued that the possibility
of open war with France and the publicized attempts at espionage by French agents in the United States
required Congress to take drastic action to guard against breaches in national security. To this end Congress
passed a series of four measures, known collectively as the Alien and Sedition Acts. John Adams signed the
Alien and Sedition Acts during June and July 1798, but it was only with the gravest misgivings that he did so,
for the acts asserted the power of the central government to an unprecedented extent.
The first, and least controversial, act was the Alien Enemies Act. This act defined the procedure by which US
authorities could determine whether a citizen of an enemy nation posed a threat to national security during
wartime. If found guilty under the outlined procedures, the guilty party would be deported or detained. The Alien
Enemies Act was not called into use until the War of 1812.
The second Act, the Alien Friends Act, was effective during peacetime, and allowed the president to deport any
citizen of any foreign nation who he decided posed a threat to the nation while inside its borders. The law
allowed the president to expel citizens without proof of guilt, claiming that spies would be adept at destroying
evidence and able to easily fool many authorities. The statute was only enforceable until June 25, 1800, before
the end of Adams' term and the 1800 congressional elections.
The Third act was the Naturalization Act. The Naturalization Act revised the procedures by which an immigrant
could become a citizen of the United States. Rather than having to establish residency in the US for five years
before becoming eligible to become a citizen, the Naturalization Act increased the residency requirement to
fourteen years.
The final, and most controversial, of the Alien and Sedition Acts, was the Sedition Act. It forbade any individual
or group to oppose "any measure or measures of the United States." Under the Sedition Act, it was illegal to
speak, write, or print any statement about the president which brought him, in the wording of the act, "into
contempt or disrepute." The Sedition Act was set to expire in 1801. Four of the five major Republican
newspapers were charged with sedition just before the presidential election of 1800, and several foreign born
journalists were threatened with expulsion. The Attorney General charged seventeen people with sedition, and
ten were convicted.
The strongest reaction to the Alien and Sedition Acts flared up in the South. In November and December 1798,
shortly after the passage of the acts, both Kentucky and Virginia endorsed manifestos on states' rights, written
anonymously by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, respectively. These resolutions stated that state
legislatures maintained the power of interposition, which allowed them to judge the constitutionality of acts of
Congress. In 1799, Kentucky passed a resolution that declared that states could nullify objectionable federal
laws.
While most states disagreed with these radical claims, tensions ran high everywhere. In Pennsylvania, German
farmers staged what was known as the Fries Rebellion, where they attempted to organize a jailbreak to free
men who had refused to pay taxes to support the expansion of the military. Thomas Jefferson increasingly
hinted that the South was preparing to secede from the Union. The state legislature in Virginia purchased
thousands of muskets to equip the militia should violence ensue. John Adams grew increasingly sensitive to
criticism and feared for the future. It was under these conditions that the election of 1800 took place.
Commentary
At the beginning of 1798, the Republicans were reeling as a party. France's continued naval aggression, and
the refusal to condemn French actions had wrested much of the party's power from its hands. The elections of
1798 overwhelmingly favored the Federalists. It appeared to many that the great political contest that had once
raged between the two parties had ended in a Federalist victory. However, the Republicans need not have
waited long for a new issue around which to mobilize. The Alien and Sedition Acts represented, to the
Republicans, the legal incarnation of all that was evil and corrupt about Federalism. Claimed by many to be the
greatest affront to liberty in all of American political history, the Alien and Sedition Acts once again polarized the
nation between Republican and Federalist.
The Republicans did not object stringently to the Alien Enemies Act. The wartime act had a legitimate claim to
protecting national security, and generally respected the rights of enemy citizens. Few could argue against its
reasonableness. However, the Alien Friends Act aroused the ire of the Republican Party. Republicans
screamed that the act effectively denied the constitutional right to fair justice, allowing the president to expel
individuals without trial. They claimed that the Alien Friends Act had no place during peacetime, and pointed to
the expiration date in 1800, claiming that the act was a Federalist plan to expel immigrants who were critical of
the Federalists before power could change hands in the elections. Republicans saw the Naturalization Act as a
blatant attempt to sap the political power of immigrants, most of whom were Republicans, by denying them
citizenship and the right to vote.
The Sedition Act was by far the most offensive of the four acts to Republicans. The supposed purpose of the
Sedition Act was to distinguish the boundaries between free speech and dangerous speech, which could cause
violence or rebellion. However, the wording of the act was sufficiently vague that the Federalists in power could
invoke the Sedition Act even in response to political discussion. Newspapers were forced to choke back
opinions, and individuals had to take precautions before speaking or writing. The effect of the Sedition Act was
to drown out all political criticism of the party in power. The Sedition Act clearly infringed upon the right to free
speech guaranteed in the First Amendment, considered by many to be the most sacred passage in the
Constitution. Republicans reacted strongly to the Sedition Act; decrying the disrespect with wish the Federalist
led Congress had treated the Constitution. Furthermore, the Federalists had written the law so that it would
expire in 1801, so that they could not fall prey to it. This seemed to the Republicans evidence enough that it
was politically motivated.
The Federalists never intended to impose a reign of terror on the nation. Rather, they wanted to intimidate
Republican newspapers and politicians so as to prevent them from aiding the Republicans in the 1800 election.
Instead, they sparked a resurgence of political opposition and turned much of the nation toward the
Republicans. With all three branches of government under Federalist control, Republicans predicted the failure
of the system of checks and balances, as the branches cooperated to amass power and become tyrannical.
They saw their worst fears of centralized power in the form of the Alien and Sedition Acts. In response, the
Republicans made the states' rights doctrine the centerpiece of the party ideology.
The Election of 1800
Summary
In the election of 1800, the Republicans again backed Thomas Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr for vice
president, while the Federalists supported John Adams for reelection. However, the Federalist Party began to
fragment late in Adams' first term. Adams began to take a more moderate stance in response to public criticism
of his policies, which distanced him from the so-called "High Federalists," more extreme politicians led by
Alexander Hamilton. When these radicals suggested that Adams attempt to spark a civil war or declare war on
France in order to bring voters to the Federalist side, he refused, instead choosing to govern as he thought was
most helpful to the nation rather than fall into election politics. In fact, Adams had sent a second diplomatic
envoy to France in 1799, much to the dismay of Federalist leaders. Federalists in Congress were outraged at
the move, and Hamilton publicly denounced Adams as a fool. They were only silenced by Adams' threat to
resign and leave the office to his vice president, Jefferson. Extreme Federalists withdrew their political support
for Adams during the election due to what they saw as his compromising of Federalist ideals.
Republicans, for their part, were busy mobilizing in full support of Jefferson. They were quite successful in
harnessing the popular dissatisfaction with the Federalists in power, and activated support in the swing states,
Pennsylvania and New York. In those two states more than 50 percent of the eligible population voted. Almost
40 percent of voters turned out nationally, largely due to the efforts of Republicans to raise political awareness.
In 1788, only 12 years earlier, only fifteen percent of eligible voters had gone to the polls.
The Federalists, in comparative disarray, nonetheless mounted opposition to Jefferson's campaign. They
concentrated a negative campaign around the religious nature of the population in most Federalist strongholds,
such as New England. Noting Jefferson was something of a religious free-thinker, Federalists actually used the
campaign slogan: "GOD - AND A RELIGIOUS PRESIDENT; or impiously declare for JEFFERSON - AND NO
GOD!!!" However, this appeal changed the minds of few Federalists who had abandoned the party. The
Federalists struggled to find some way to capture the support of the nation beyond their traditional centers of
support.
Adams lost the election of 1800 65 to 73 in the Electoral College. Republicans scored victories in New York,
Pennsylvania, and unexpectedly, in South Carolina, a traditional Federalist stronghold, where Republican
leaders had promised extensive political favors. However, all 73 Republican electors had voted for both
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, who had been picked by the party to be vice president. Thus the Electoral
College produced a Jefferson-Burr tie. The task of deciding who would become president fell to the House of
Representatives. Burr refused to pull out of the race, even though he knew the party had chosen Jefferson as
president. Federalists saw this as a chance to promote Burr over Jefferson, their arch-nemesis. Over six days,
the House took 35 ballots, failing to choose either man with a majority of states. Finally, several moderate
Federalists changed their positions, granted assurances that Jefferson would not obliterate all traces of the
Federalist system. After 36 ballots Jefferson was president, and Burr, for his insolence, became completely
impotent as vice president.
Commentary
The most important factors contributing to Jefferson's victory in 1800 were the dissention in the Federalist
ranks and the success of Republican organization and mobilization. Jefferson's Republicans proved adept at
manipulating the press and keeping their fingers on the pulse of public opinion. They capitalized on the
Federalist actions which had taken the greatest toll on the common voter, focusing particularly on the Alien and
Sedition Acts as indicative of a Federalist desire to deny basic freedoms to the common man, and decried
Federalist sponsored taxation as exorbitant and unnecessary. Adams was painted as a panicky figurehead
controlled by an evil party which cared not for the average citizen. As a result of Republican efforts, voter
turnout was greater than ever before.
The Federalists, meanwhile, mounted very little opposition, proving themselves much less capable of political
organization than were Republicans. Their appeals to religious sentiment were almost laughable, and after
Adams' decision to send a second diplomatic mission to France, they could no longer rely on the traditional
claim that Republicans sympathized with France, the most prominent military threat to the nation. Additionally,
with the probability of war declining, Americans grew incensed at the high taxes they were forced to pay to
maintain the army. Under Adams, the national debt had swelled by $10 million, which further dismayed voters.
However, regional politics, Republican organization, and Federalist folly do not tell the entire story. Jefferson
won the vote of every city in the east, including Philadelphia and New York. Artisans and small business
owners increasingly turned away from the Federalists, who they saw as elitist and aristocratic, and toward the
Republicans, led by Jefferson, who though he was an aristocrat, symbolized for many the spirit of equality and
meritocracy.
Jefferson would later describe his victory in the election of 1800 as the "Revolution of 1800." He considered it
"as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." Jefferson and the
Republicans saw themselves as the saviors of the nation, freeing it from the tyrannical grips of a party bent on
elitism and tending toward monarchy. While there was certainly a vast difference between the Feederalist style
of government and the Republican style which Jefferson would bring to the national government, most
historians think that to frame the transition as one from incipient monarchy to virtuous republicanism is to
exaggerate the circumstances a great deal. John Adams was certainly not in pursuit of monarchy. He very
much believed in the principles of democracy. However, he came from a school of thought that considered all
men to be basically evil, and he sought to place the power of government in the hands of the least evil and
most rational, which he thought to be represented by the political and social elites. Jefferson, for his part, most
likely similarly considered men to be driven by self-interest and greed. However, he was from the school of
thought which believed that the pursuit of self-interest could lead to social benefits, and thought that
government should not limit the governed so much that they could not undertake this pursuit. The difference in
ideology was thus not as stark as Jefferson would have painted it, and he would soon find out that the
president is beleaguered by challenges whether he be a Federalist or Republican.
Jefferson's Early Days in Office
Summary
Thomas Jefferson became president in 1801, having served as governor of Virginia, secretary of state under
George Washington, and vice president under Adams. Jefferson had basically founded the Republican Party
upon resigning from Washington's cabinet. He viewed the Republicans as the bastion of equality in America,
and eschewed the elitism of the Federalists. Jefferson walked, rather than rode, to his inauguration, dressed in
the clothes of the common citizen, and spoke of government free from the pomp of royalty, for the people, by
the people. He took office convinced that taxation, standing armies, and despotic leaders had corrupted the
system of government the framers had tried to install. He thus rallied to the cause of states' rights. He argued
that responsive state governments than would more efficiently and compassionately serve the nation's people
than could the central government in Washington.
Following his inauguration, Jefferson set about righting what he saw as the wrongs perpetrated by his
Federalist predecessors. He strongly disagreed with the decision to maintain a continuous national debt, a plan
devised by secretary of treasury Alexander Hamilton during George Washington's presidency. The debt had
grown by $10 million during John Adams' presidency. Even if the United States only paid the interest on the
debt, there would need to be taxation. However, Jefferson and his secretary of treasury Albert Gallatin believed
that taxes were an undesirable intrusion of government into private life, and planned to abolish them for good.
Jefferson and Gallatin devised a plan to lower taxes and cut expenses, with the ultimate goal of an end to
taxation. They persuaded Congress to cut almost all internal taxes, and balanced the cut with reductions in the
army and other expensive government endeavors. As trade increased and customs receipts grew accordingly,
Gallatin made great strides in paying down the national debt. In an especially daring move, Gallatin sold the
government's stock in the national bank to the House of Baring in London in 1802, and used the payment to
pay an installment on the debt owed to the Dutch.
Though Jefferson and Gallatin intended to cut expenditures in the military, they maintained a portion of the
naval force to fight the Barbary pirates. For years the US and many other nations had been forced to pay
tribute to Tripoli in return for safe passage. The Barbary pirates off the coast of northern Africa attacked the
ships of nations that did not pay tribute. Jefferson believed it would be less costly to go to war with the pirates
than to continue paying tribute, and shortly after assuming office, he dispatched apportion of the fleet to the
shores of northern Africa. After three years of fighting, the move finally paid off in 1805, when the US signed a
peace treaty with Tripoli which cut the yearly cost of tribute in half.
Commentary
Jefferson's presidency was, from the very beginning, more of a rhetorical construction than a string of concrete
actions. He had won the confidence of the voters by verbally tearing down the work of the Federalists and
glorifying the needs of the common man. He conducted himself with great humility, walking and riding
horseback often, rather than riding in elaborate coaches, as had his predecessors. He created, verbally, an
image of an administration founded on liberty and, most of all, equality. Generally, it is agreed that his ideals
matched up to his rhetoric, but there is evidence which has caused some historians to question his sincerity.
Most notable, and most often cited, is the fact that Jefferson was a large slaveholder, and furthermore, that he
allegedly engaged in adulterous sexual relations with one of his slaves, fathering her children.
Once in office, Jefferson took action as was needed, but tried extremely hard to limit the scope of his actions to
that which did not interfere in the lives of the common citizens. Adhering to the Republican ideal which
demanded the separation of the branches of government, Jefferson began the practice of sending a written
message to Congress each year, to be read by the clerk, rather than appearing in person. This practice
survived until the early twentieth century.
Though he refused to dismiss all Federalist appointees, as many of his Republican colleagues urged, Jefferson
did set about doing whatever he saw as within his limited power to reverse the course that the Federalists had
set the nation upon. Since secretary of the treasury Alexander Hamilton, under Washington, had spearheaded
much of the offending Federalist policy, Jefferson's secretary of treasury, Albert Gallatin, played the most
important role initially in undoing it. Jefferson's views on government involvement in the economy were starkly
in contrast to the views set forth by Hamilton's Federalists. While the Federalists had firmly believed that the
government must closely regulate the economy, Jefferson and Gallatin believed in the economic theories of
Adam Smith, which stated that an unregulated economy would create the greatest amount of wealth. Thus
Gallatin set about the task of undoing the bonds between the government and the wealthy that Hamilton had so
carefully erected. The most prominent act of this revolution in political-economic theory was the selling off of
bank stock to the House of Baring. With this transaction the Republican government eliminated all ties with the
odious symbol of Federalist economic policy.
Gallatin was aided by circumstance in achieving his budgetary goals. The army could be cut down without
outcry because the British and French signed the Peace of Amiens in 1802, bringing hostilities to a close
temporarily, and allowing Jefferson to rest easy, knowing that America would not need to enter the conflict to
protect its interests from either or both sides. Jefferson's decision to battle the Barbary pirates with America's
remaining military might turned out to be a great success. Defensible under the rubric of free trade, Jefferson's
attempts to open the seas for American shipping ingratiated him to many merchants and businessmen who
would have formerly counted themselves Federalists, all while preserving the support of the agricultural South,
which, freed from heavy taxation along with the rest of the nation, supported Jefferson fully in these early days.
The Attack on the Judiciary
Summary
The composition of the judicial branch of the national government was a major point of contention in the early
years of Thomas Jefferson's presidency. In 1800, when Jefferson was elected, not a single Republican held a
federal judgeship. Republicans were further infuriated by the Federalists' Judiciary Act of 1801, passed on
February 27, just five days before Jefferson's inauguration. While the main thrust of the act was the creation of
sixteen new federal judgeships to ease the load on the Supreme Court, the most concerning clause, to
Republicans, was that which cut the number of Supreme Court Justices from six to five. This would deny
Jefferson his first opportunity to appoint a Supreme Court justice, and ensure a Federalist court for years to
come. While many radical Republicans insisted that judges should be elected and not appointed, Jefferson was
not radical enough to agree, and he did not challenge the powers of the courts. He did, however, challenge
Federalist control of the courts.
One of the Jefferson administration's most controversial episodes with the judicial system was the case of
William Marbury. On his last day in office, March 3, 1801, John Adams had appointed Marbury, an obscure
Federalist, as justice of the peace in the District of Columbia. This was one of many so- called midnight
appointments. However, he failed to deliver the commission by midnight of March 3. Jefferson's secretary of
state, James Madison, refused to deliver the commission, electing instead to hold the position open for a
Republican appointment. Marbury, in response, asked the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus, which would
force Madison to deliver the commission.
The Supreme Court did not rule on the case of Marbury v. Madison until February 1803, before which,
Jefferson had successfully won the repeal of the Judiciary Act of 1801. Many Federalists thought their power in
the Judiciary had been crushed. However, Chief Justice John Marshall demonstrated the considerable power
still wielded by the Federalist-dominated judicial branch in his decision in Marbury v. Madison. Marshall and the
court denied Marbury's request for a writ of mandamus, ruling not that he did not deserve it, but rather, that
Congress had overstepped its constitutional bounds by giving the Supreme Court the authority to issue such a
writ in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This was the first time an act passed by Congress was declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. This power, called judicial review, was not invoked again for 54 years,
but the precedent had been set.
Meanwhile, Republicans had taken steps to impeach two Federalist judges, John Pickering and Samuel Chase.
Pickering was a well-known alcoholic whose actions in the courtroom demonstrated that he was clinically
insane. Chase had been one of the most overzealous enforcers of the Alien and Sedition Acts, imprisoning
several Republican leaders and journalists. The Senate voted to convict Pickering on March 12, 1804. Chase,
on the other hand, was acquitted shortly after. With this acquittal, Jefferson's battle with the judiciary effectively
ended. Jefferson did not interfere with the judiciary after 1804, and his relations with the judicial branch as a
whole were generally amiable.
Commentary
Recalling the enthusiasm with which the federal judiciary had enforced the Alien and Sedition Acts, and
bemoaning the absence of Republicans in federal judicial positions, Jefferson feared the judiciary would remain
a Federalist stronghold and provide a major roadblock to his initiatives. He was further disheartened by John
Adams' actions during his final months in office. Between December 12, 1800, when it became clear that he
would not win reelection, and the day of Jefferson's inauguration, March 4, 1801, Adams appointed a
significant number of federal judges. These midnight appointments consisted exclusively of Federalists, most of
which had previous political or familial ties to prominent party members. The nation had never experienced a
transition from one party to another in the executive branch, and therefore there was no precedent for how to
deal with appointments made by a predecessor of a different party. Jefferson at first declared that he would not
dismiss any Federalist appointees. However, under pressure from position-seekers in his party, he later altered
that promise, agreeing to dismiss all appointees commissioned by Adams after December 12.
Marshall's decision in Marbury v. Madison has been hailed as one of the most important in US history. The
principle of judicial review, not exercised again until 1857, nevertheless has been a major feature of the judicial
branch throughout American history. Despite the objections of some of his more radical Republican colleagues,
Jefferson did support the principle of judicial review. He simply argued that other branches of the government
should have the right to review the constitutionality of laws as well. Since Marshall's opinion contained no claim
that the courts alone could declare a measure unconstitutional, Jefferson had no argument with the decision.
However, Marshall used a portion of his decision to lecture Madison (and thus indirectly Jefferson, his superior)
on his moral duty to deliver the commission, as opposed to his legal obligation. This struck Jefferson as a clear
example of Federalist partisanship, and steeled him further in his battle against the courts.
Impeachment of federal judges was a controversial action not attempted before, or for more than 50 years after
the Republicans attempted to impeach Pickering and Chase. Though the details of the two cases were very
different, the questions raised by impeachment were universal. The Constitution provided for impeachment of
federal judges only in cases of "Treason, Bribery, and other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." Thus the
question arose of whether impeachment was the correct method to disbar federal judges who were insane or
excessively partisan. Pickering was convicted, most likely more because he was clearly a hazard to his
courtroom and himself than because he was guilty of high crimes and misdemeanors. Historians argue that
Chase was acquitted largely due to the failure of John Randolph, a congressman, in the case's prosecution.
However, other historians argue that he may have been acquitted no matter what, because moderate
Republicans were increasingly skeptical of the use of impeachment as a remedy for excessive partisanship.
The Louisiana Purchase
Summary
Perhaps the greatest contribution of Thomas Jefferson's administration was the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson
did not come into office with the desire to expand the nation. On October 1, 1800, Spain ceded the Louisiana
Territory to France in the Treaty of San Ildefonso. The territory was equal in size to the entire United States at
the time. Napoleon Bonaparte envisioned a Caribbean empire, with the Louisiana Territory providing the
resources to support the center of the empire on the island of Santo Domingo (now Haiti). At the time the
Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed, Santo Domingo was controlled by former slaves, under Toussaint
L'Ouverture, who had driven their masters from the island. Napoleon dispatched the French army to regain
control of the island, but the islanders met the troops with fierce resistance. Faced with this resistance, and
many troops suffering from yellow fever, the French retreated in defeat. Napoleon gave up on his plan for a
Caribbean empire.
By 1802, France had still not taken control of the Louisiana Territory, leaving it in the hands of the Spanish
despite the fact that the land belonged to France. In October 1802, the Spanish colonial administrator in New
Orleans prohibited American crops from being deposited at the port of New Orleans before being shipped to
other nations. This severely constricted US commerce in the southwest, and many Americans believed,
incorrectly, that the order had actually come from Napoleon. Fears of French control of the Louisiana Territory,
and especially of New Orleans, loomed large. Jefferson began efforts to ingratiate himself to the British in
preparation fro enlisting their aid against the French.
Jefferson sent James Monroe and Robert Livingston to France with the intention of negotiating the purchase of
the port of New Orleans, in an attempt to end, at long last, American difficulties there. He also instructed them
to negotiate the purchase, if possible, of as much of Florida as possible. However, the envoy found Napoleon
had given up on his plan for a Caribbean empire in order to focus on the war in Europe. In order to finance
French efforts in Europe, he wanted to sell all of the Louisiana Territory. After some negotiation, the price was
set at $15 million in April 1803, for which the US gained an enormous, uncharted piece of land to the west of
the Mississippi River. For the price of approximately 13.5 cents per acre, the United States had doubled its
size.
Jefferson, always the strict constructionist, feared that the purchase would be deemed unconstitutional.
Therefore, he personally drafted a constitutional amendment authorizing the national government to acquire
new lands and allowing for the indefinite settlement of the new territory. However, Jefferson and his colleagues
feared the time it would take to adopt a new amendment might allow the deal to slip through their fingers.
Urged by fellow Republicans, he dropped the amendment and submitted the treaty that provided for the
Louisiana Purchase to the Senate, where it was speedily ratified.
Commentary
Jefferson had long imagined an "empire of liberty" that would span North America, and perhaps even extend
into South America. However, he did not enter office with any clear plans for expansion. With Spain, an
increasingly weak power, in control of the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson reasoned that it was only a matter of
time until the US would have an opportunity to expand westward. However, once the Louisiana Territory
changed hands, the situation changed. Jefferson did not trust France, or more specifically Bonaparte, to stay
out of North American affairs. He feared the nation would find itself wedged between Britain in Canada and
France in Louisiana, a weaker player in a North American geographical struggle dominated by the world's two
largest powers.
When the Spanish closed the port of New Orleans to American crops, Jefferson was forced to act in defense of
American interests. He sought only to end the longstanding quarrels over New Orleans and counterbalance
French advances in North America by purchasing parts of Florida. However, Napoleon presented the US with
another option, which, while Jefferson had not seriously considered it, fascinated him. In the end, it proved a
wise decision to purchase the Louisiana Territory. The nation doubled its geographical size, gained access to
the resources of the wilderness and important waterways for travel and commerce. Additionally, the Louisiana
Territory served as a sort of buffer zone, keeping foreign powers in North America at a greater distance from
the primary population of the United States.
Jefferson's dilemma over the constitutionality of the Louisiana Purchase is telling, in that while he jumped at the
chance to expand the nation, he also maintained a reverence for his roots as a strict constructionist. He
decided against attempting to amend the Constitution for a number of reasons. He feared that the time it took
to amend the Constitution would allow Napoleon to change his mind or somehow alter the bargain in France's
favor. Additionally, he feared that the longer it took to ratify the treaty delineating the purchase, the greater the
chance would be for the Federalists to mount opposition to ratification. Most Federalists disliked the Louisiana
Purchase because they believed the expansion of the nation would dilute the political power of their
strongholds on the eastern seaboard. Jefferson's consistent assertion that the farmers were the backbone of
America and would benefit from this expansion of arable land did not help to assuage these fears. Thus what
little debate there was over ratification centered largely on the assertion on the part of the Federalist minority
that no new states should be created in the Louisiana Territory without the consent of the original thirteen. The
Republican majority easily rebuffed this claim, and the treaty was easily ratified.
The appeal to states' rights by the Federalists seems anomalous considering it had been the Republican
opposition during John Adams' presidency which had brought the issue to the fore, and the Federalists who
had consistently advocated for a strong central government. Historians point to the debate over ratification to
argue that perhaps the states' rights doctrine was less of an ideological cornerstone for the Republicans than a
universally useful defense mechanism raised by those out of power against those in control of the national
government.
Exploring Louisiana
Summary
No one was exactly sure how big the Louisiana Territory actually was. Some claimed it extended all the way to
the Pacific Ocean, but Thomas Jefferson was content to accept the more moderate contention that the western
border was the Rocky Mountains, leaving all land westward to the Spanish. However, no one knew exactly
where the Rockies were, few Americans having ever seen them.
Even before the Louisiana Purchase Jefferson had been fascinated by the undiscovered frontier. Shortly
following his inauguration, Jefferson had discussed the possibilities of exploration with his neighbor and
personal secretary, Lieutenant Meriwether Lewis. Eventually, he chose Lewis to lead an expedition up the
Missouri River and across the Rocky Mountains to chart the territory and observe and collect the species of the
area for scientific purposes. In January 1803 Jefferson asked Congress to appropriate funds for this mission.
Once the Louisiana Purchase was negotiated that April, the expedition was given the go-ahead. Meriwether
Lewis was promoted to captain in the army, and Lieutenant William Clark was made second in command.
Lewis and Clark gathered an expeditionary team of mostly military personnel, and spent the winter of 18031804 in St. Louis, preparing to venture into the wilderness.
In May 1804, the expedition set off from St. Louis with 45 soldiers. During the first year of the expedition, they
took their boats north up the Missouri River, feeding on buffalo and deer, and warding off the sometimes-hostile
natives. They made it to the Dakotas, where they wintered at the village of the Mandan Indians. It was there
that Lewis and Clark hired the interpreting services of a French fur-trader, Toussaint Charbonneau, and his
Indian wife Sacajawea. Though Charbonneau proved to be only of limited help, Sacajawea was indispensable
as a guide, especially during the crossing of the Bitteroot Mountains in what is now southern Idaho. She
showed the party how to forage for food, and was instrumental in maintaining good relations with the Indian
tribes of what is now the northwest US. Once the expedition had crossed the mountains in Idaho, the party
began the perilous trip down the Snake and Columbia Rivers. The group reached the mouth of the Columbia
River, at the Pacific Ocean, on November 7, 1805. There they spent their second winter before beginning the
journey home.
Lewis and Clark began the trip back to St. Louis in the spring of 1806, dividing their group into two to cover
more territory at first. Lewis led the part of the group that took the northern track, and Clark led the remainder
along a more southern trail. They met up again at the Mandan village where they had spent the first winter, and
traveled quickly back to St. Louis on the Missouri River. The Lewis and Clark expedition landed at St. Louis in
September 1806, having traveled nearly 3000 miles in two and a half years.
Commentary
In Jefferson's proposal asking Congress to appropriate the funds necessary for the Lewis and Clark expedition,
he highlighted the commercial possibilities it presented, to open up waterways and to divert southward the
Indians' trade in pelts with Canada. He stressed the desire to find "the most practicable water communication
across this continent, for the purpose of commerce." However, it is more likely that Jefferson's primary goal for
the expedition was the collection of scientific data. He explicitly instructed Meriwether Lewis to learn as much
as possible about the Native Americans, geological features, and plant and animal species of the Louisiana
Territory. When Lewis and Clark returned, the specimens they had collected were sent to Philadelphia under
top priority for scientific study. Jefferson himself experimented with growing the Indian corn that the expedition
brought back.
Lewis and Clark have been canonized as American heroes for their amazing feat of exploration. Traveling 3000
miles in two and a half years was an unparalleled expeditionary accomplishment. The exploration of the
Louisiana Territory demonstrated the truly vast area of the western lands purchased by the United States, and
opened the nation's eyes to the resources and opportunities these lands held. Lewis and Clark's success
paved the way for further exploration and settlement of the American West, which commenced soon after the
US took possession of the territory in December 1803. Soon after they returned, America was abuzz with
stories of the riches and wonders of the new territory. Legends circulated widely about gigantic Indians, soil too
rich to grow trees, and a mountain composed entirely of salt. Jefferson believed many of the less far-fetched
tall tales, and so did many of his countrymen. Despite the ridicule of certain political opponents, the Lewis and
Clark expedition greatly stimulated interest in the West.
One of the most interesting stories of the Lewis and Clark expedition was their encounter with the Indian guide
Sacajawea. Sacajawea's actions during the expedition's trip between the Dakotas and the Pacific, and then
back, have secured for her a place of legend in US history (and on the new American dollar), and went far
toward changing American views about women and Native Americans. Along the journey, Lewis and Clark
learned of the hardships which Sacajawea had been made to endure as a Shoshone Indian girl. She had been
beaten, forced to do heavy labor, and kidnapped from her home. Charbonneau had won her hand in marriage
in a game of chance. Despite this rough upbringing, and repeated physical abuse from Charbonneau,
Sacajawea brought a spirit of perseverance to the expedition, proving to all that a woman could to the hard
work of a man while maintaining the compassion and nurturing spirit most often attributed to women. She thus
won a place of special honor in Lewis and Clark's minds and hearts, and her legend has won a place of special
honor in American history.
Further Exploration and the West Florida Controversy
Summary
Following the start of the Lewis and Clark expedition, further exploration of the Louisiana Territory was
undertaken by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike. In the fall of 1805, the military commander of Louisiana, General
James Wilkinson, ordered Pike to explore the headwaters of the Mississippi River. The source of the
Mississippi was important to find because it would mark the latitudinal boundary between Canada and the US.
However, due to poor planning, Pike ended up in Minnesota in the middle of winter, lost among the snowy
forests and lakes. If not for two British fur-traders who, illegally trespassing on US land, found him, he may
have died. He returned to St. Louis unsuccessful.
Despite this failure, Wilkinson dispatched him again in August 1806, this time to explore the headwaters of the
Arkansas River. Pike successfully followed the Arkansas to its source in the mountains of what is now southern
Colorado. However, after that, he inexplicably turned southward, heading toward the headwaters of the Rio
Grande. He was captured wandering around the desert by Spanish troops, who brought him to the Louisiana
border and returned him to the embarrassed Wilkinson. This marked the end of Pike's explorations.
Other than a rise in exploration, an immediate consequence of the Louisiana Purchase was the heightening of
tensions with Spain. The treaty that granted the Louisiana Territory to the US defined the territory vaguely, as
"Louisiana with the same extent as it now has in the hands of Spain, and that it had when France possessed
it." The original Louisiana Territory had encompassed land to both the west and east of the Mississippi River. In
1763, the portion of Louisiana to the east of the Mississippi had passed into British hands, while the portion to
the west passed into Spanish hands. At the same time, Britain had acquired Florida from Spain, and united
East Florida, which had been Spanish, with and West Florida, which had been French and a part of the original
Louisiana. In 1783, Britain surrendered both Floridas to Spain, and ceded its portion of the original Louisiana to
the US. So the question was: was West Florida a part of the Louisiana Territory under the definition of the
treaty, since it had been part of the original French Louisiana? If so, had the US bought it?
When James Monroe and Robert Livingston, the American brokers of the Louisiana Purchase, asked French
foreign minister Charles de Tallyrand whether or not West Florida was included in their purchase, he
responded cryptically, "Gentlemen, you have made a noble bargain for yourselves, and I suppose you will
make the most of it." Monroe and Livingston took this answer to mean they controlled West Florida, and this
became official administration policy. Spain, for its part, regarded the entire Louisiana Purchase as illegal, since
Spain's previous treaty with Napoleon had stated Louisiana would not be sold. If the Spanish had to give up
their lands in the west, however, they certainly did not want to let West Florida go. At the suggestion of the
French, they retaliated against the policy of the administration by attacking American merchants at sea.
Commentary
Coming at a time of tension between the United States and Spain, there is much speculation that Zebulon
Pike's second exploratory mission may have simply been a cover for an espionage mission to investigate
Spanish positions in the West. It was known that General Wilkinson was frequently involved in intrigue both for
and against the Spanish, and many historians believe that this was the true purpose of Pike's expedition. His
turn to the south, more than anything else, suggests espionage as his motive. An experienced explorer, Pike
would have surely realized once he got to the headwaters of the Rio Grande that he was on waterways that
flowed directly into the gulf. This would have signaled to him that he was outside of American Louisiana, and he
could have returned directly to US territory. The official story, that he had lost his way again, earned him the
nickname "the lost pathfinder." He returned to St. Louis, where he published an account of his travels and
received more fame than even Lewis and Clark. Whatever his true motives were, Pike was the first to
thoroughly explore the southern Rockies, and the maps he drew proved invaluable to future explorers and
settlers of the southern Louisiana Territory.
If Pike's journeys were undertaken with the goal of espionage, his amateurish mission would have served as
the US's grossly incomplete introduction to the realm of European power politics in regard to North America.
While the US had always been heavily involved in diplomacy with the other nations that occupied areas of
North America, and consistently taken action to protect its interests, Thomas Jefferson was the first President
to be treated to the full experience of international intrigue and manipulation. Though the Louisiana Purchase
had ejected France from a geographically large part of North America, Napoleon Bonaparte and Charles de
Tallyrand proved continually that the French influence in affairs on the North American continent had not
decreased commensurately.
Just as earlier administrations had struggled with defining and defending the borders granted to the US by the
Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, Jefferson found himself faced with the prospect of defining
the new borders of the nation granted to the US by the Louisiana Purchase. He found that he would not get
much cooperation from foreign nations in this area. Spain, though weakened in North America during the
preceding decade, was prepared to hold on to West Florida with all of its might due to the land's value as a
pathway to the Gulf of Mexico. James Monroe and Robert Livingston had reported that the French foreign
minister seemed to be in favor of, or at least indifferent to, the United States annexing West Florida. As it
turned out, the French saw West Florida as an opportunity to stir up trouble between Spain and the US. After
encouraging the United States to claim West Florida as its own, Chales de Tallyrand proceeded to encourage
Spain to retaliate militarily against claims to West Florida made by the US. Thus the United States had been
used as a pawn to enable Napoleon to directly influence events in North America though France did not control
as much land there as it once had.
The Coalition Begins to Fragment: The Quids and the Burr Conspiracy
Summary
In an attempt to capitalize on the tensions between Spain and the US, Napoleon suggested that he could
arrange a deal under which the Spanish would sell West Florida and a part of Texas to the US for $10 million.
This was exactly the amount which Spain paid to France yearly as a war subsidy, and it was understood that
the money would go indirectly to the French. Even so, Jefferson thought the plan would benefit the US. He
asked Congress for an advance of $2 million. Many Republicans in the House of Representatives refused to
cooperate and held up the appropriations act. They were led by House leader John Randolph, who claimed the
entire deal seemed like the second XYZ Affair.
Randolph was so disgusted with Jefferson's behavior that he broke ranks with the Republicans and started a
faction called the Tertium Quids, based on the agrarian, states' rights roots of the party. The Quids presented
only a minor stumbling block for Jefferson, and the Two Million Act passed in the spring of 1806, granting
Jefferson's advance. Incidentally, West Florida was never bought. Rather, it was acquired by revolution when
the southern pioneers who had moved there following the Louisiana Purchase rebelled against Spanish rule in
1810. James Madison, president at that time, deployed the army to secure the area and added it to the United
States' land holdings.
Meanwhile, espionage continued to play a major role in the Southwest. Spanish agents tried continually to
provoke inhabitants of the US Southwest to secede from the Union, often with the aid of paid American agents.
The Creole population of Louisiana threatened to secede. This situation needed only a slight push to become a
conspiracy. Aaron Burr provided that push. After failing to withdraw from the election of 1800 Burr had lost the
trust of the Republican Party. George Clinton replaced him as vice president in 1804, when Jefferson defeated
Charles Pinckney for the presidency. Burr ran for governor in New York in 1804, but was stymied by the efforts
of Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton. In anger he challenged Hamilton to a duel, which he won, killing
Hamilton.
Fleeing New York, he met with General James Wilkinson (Zebulon Pike's commander) and hatched a plan to
seize Texas in the confusion of the Spanish- American squabbling. From there, he hoped, they would gauge
western satisfaction and attempt to sever the Union and control the land west of the Ohio River. Burr met with
British foreign minister Anthony Merry, but Merry was unable to supply funding or military support for the plan.
Additionally, Jefferson's decision to purchase West Florida calmed tensions between Spain and the US.
Determined nonetheless, in July 1806 Burr sent word to Wilkinson that he was preparing for action, and began
stockpiling weapons and recruiting men through an agent who owned an island in the Ohio River.
Jefferson, hearing rumors of a conspiracy, had Burr's hideout raided. Burr was not on the island and escaped
down the Mississippi into sure disaster. Wilkinson betrayed Burr upon receiving his July letter, sending it to
Jefferson, edited so as not to condemn himself. Jefferson issued a proclamation in late 1806 ordering the arrest
of any man conspiring to attack Spanish territory, as Burr planned to do. Burr saw this proclamation in a
newspaper in January 1807, and turned himself in to Mississippi Territory authorities. He was released, not
having committed any crime in the Territory, and headed toward Florida disguised as a boatman. He was
recognized and captured in Alabama.
Burr's case was dropped by government prosecutors after chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the inoperative
intention to divide the Union did not constitute treason. Burr fled to Europe, only to return in 1812, father two
illegitimate children in his 70s, and be divorced in his 80s for adultery.
Commentary
Jefferson had been backed into a corner in terms of foreign policy. He fully realized that the US had been
manipulated by Napoleon for his own gains. Jefferson was only attempting to make the best of a bad situation
in negotiating for the purchase of West Florida. West Florida was valuable to the US in that it was a corridor to
the Gulf of Mexico and foreign commerce. The Louisiana Purchase and the subsequent French meddling that
turned the US and Spain into antagonistic entities had placed an even higher premium on the territory. In
Napoleon's offer, Jefferson saw the opportunity to expand the nation into desired areas peacefully and
definitively, without violent conflict. He had almost no choice, unless he wanted to send troops to conquer West
Florida, potentially at great financial and human expense.
Though the Quids never effectively split the Republican Party, they were of concern to Jefferson in that they
demonstrated the potential for further rifts. John Randolph viewed the plan to purchase West Florida as final
evidence that Jefferson had lost his out-of-office ideals and purity. He had earlier become suspicious of
Jefferson's influence in Congress. Jefferson entertained Congressmen three or four nights a week at dinner,
personally drafted laws, and his cabinet members frequently testified in front of congressional committees.
Randolph took all of this to mean that Jefferson had lost touch with his roots in the "country" philosophy of the
Republican Party. The plan to buy West Florida was the last straw and he broke with the party. Though many
Republicans were skeptical of the plan to purchase Western Florida, few believed Jefferson was steering the
party astray, and only about a dozen Republican representatives followed Randolph's lead.
Perhaps even less of a threat to the administration and the nation was the Burr conspiracy, remarkable as one
of the most bizarre episodes in American history. While the Burr conspiracy never materialized, it did highlight
the existence of subversive elements throughout the Southwest. The Creole population, led by wealthy
merchant Daniel Clark, formed the Mexican Association, whose purpose was to plan for the conquest of
northern Mexico and to secede from the United States. The Spanish continued to attempt to persuade
American citizens to secede, and in fact, James Wilkinson was revealed during the Burr case as a Spanish
agent, paid thousands by the Spanish government to encourage secession.
However, Burr could not successfully harness these forces to even make an attempt at secession. Wilkinson
readily betrayed him, playing the role of hero to the president and at the same time pleasing his Spanish
employers by halting a planned attack on Spanish lands. Other than loyalty from his conspirators, Burr would
have needed both foreign aid and an opportunity to seize Texas amidst military interaction between the US and
Spain. Neither of these requisites materialized. Though British foreign minister Anthony Merry, a vehement
anti-American and anti-Jeffersonian, was in favor of the plan, he could not persuade London to lend its support
to the conspiracy. Just as Burr received word that he would not get any aid from Britain, he found out that
Jefferson had decided to purchase West Florida, temporarily delaying any military action that might have
otherwise been forthcoming. Despite these sure signs of failure, Burr continued his efforts, only to be thwarted
before he even had a chance to put his plan into action. Burr remains one of the least well understood political
figures in American history.
Summary
In 1803, the Peace of Amiens collapsed and France and Britain resumed making war against each other.
Clinging to neutrality, and trading with both nations, America prospered at first. However, the US soon found
itself in the midst of an economic battle. Britain had blockaded the northern coast of Europe to prevent its
enemies, the coalition of France, Germany, and Spain, from trading through these lines. Napoleon responded
to the blockade with the Berlin Decree of 1806, declaring that all neutral ships which stopped at Britain before
coming to the continent would be seized by the French fleet. Britain responded by ordering all ships bound for
the continent to stop at Britain, upon penalty of seizure. Napoleon quickly retaliated with the Milan Decree (his
army had moved), which stated that all neutral ships even consenting to a British search would be seized.
Between these various orders, both the British and French seized many American merchant ships.
To make matters worse, the British changed their policy on what was known as the re-export trade. According
to the British rule of 1756, US ships were not permitted to fill in for French ships trading between the West
Indies and Europe during time of war. The solution to this restriction had traditionally been to ship goods from
the West Indies to America, unload them, and then reload them to be shipped to Europe as American goods.
However, in 1805, in a case involving the USS Essex, the British ruled this practice illegal, and began
searching outgoing ships off the coast of the US for contraband.
As if these economic impositions were not enough, the British added the threat of impressment. The British
navy experienced huge numbers of desertions due to low wages and morale. Many of these deserters found
work sailing on US vessels. The British, ever in need of sailors, began stopping American ships, mustering the
crew, and impressing those who were or had been British subjects into the royal navy. They often seized
naturalized or even natural-born American citizens as well. With the French seizing ships in European ports,
and the British accosting ships at sea, Thomas Jefferson sent diplomats to try to work out an agreement with
Britain. The envoy walked away with a treaty so weak Jefferson refused to even show it to the Senate.
Anglo-American tensions reached a head in the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair. On June 22, 1807 the British
naval frigate HMS Leopard followed the American naval frigate USS Chesapeake out of Norfolk harbor in
Virginia, and opened fire upon it after a request to board had been denied. The Chesapeake, not prepared for
battle, lost three men and had twenty wounded, and permitted the British to board. The British naval officers
boarded, seized four men who had deserted the royal navy, hanged them from a yardarm, and sailed away.
Jefferson, outraged, issued a proclamation banning all British warships from American waters. Congress took
measures to expand the army, and on December 22, 1807, passed the Embargo Act. The act prohibited any
ship from leaving a US port for a foreign port, effectively ending both exportation and importation. Jefferson
described the act as a means of peaceful coercion.
Despite substantial damage to the British economy, the Embargo Act hit the US harder. Merchants, artisans,
and farmers alike, all suffered because of trade isolation. Unemployment was rampant and debtors prisons
were filled. By December 1808, the Embargo Act was vociferously despised throughout the nation. Congress
finally voted to terminate the act on March 3, 1809, replacing it with a non-intercourse law preventing trade with
Britain and France and granting the President the power to determine when it should be resumed. Jefferson
had announced he would not run for re-election even before the failure of the Embargo Act. James Madison,
his secretary of state, won the election of 1808 and became president March 4, 1809.
Commentary
Late in Jefferson's presidency the United States was once again playing the role of pawn in the game of
European power. France and Britain each tried to use the US to their advantage and keep their opponent from
using the US. As far as Britain and France were concerned, they were the only two superpowers in the world,
and all other, less powerful nations had to ally themselves with one of the two sides in times of war. All of this
left Jefferson with no clear course of action if he wanted to maintain neutrality. Delaying action, the US was
embarrassed and made to look weak as its ships were seized abroad. Britain and France both seized American
ships, but British seizures were much more humiliating for the Americans. While the French navy was relatively
weak, and France's seizures occurred mostly in and around European ports, British warships waited just off the
American east coast, stopping and searching nearly every ship THAT departed from major port cities.
Impressment added another element of embarrassment to American interaction with the British. Not only could
the Americans say nothing while their ships were stopped without reason, they could not protect individual
sailors either, even if they were naturalized citizens.
The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair finally triggered an American response because it violently demonstrated all of
the offensive actions that the British had partaken in for years. They disrespected American ships, even naval
ships, in their home waters, thought nothing of damaging American ships and cargo, and brought retribution
upon US ships for desertions the Americans had no part in. With the nation outraged, and many calling for war,
Jefferson searched for a way to punish the British and French for their refusal to accept US neutrality while
maintaining that very neutrality. His answer was the Embargo Act. Technically, the Embargo Act only prevented
exportation, but few ships would carry goods to US harbors knowing they would be forced to leave without
cargo. The effect of the Embargo Act was to place the United States in economic isolation. Jefferson hoped
that applying pressure to French and British trade, he would force the two nations to respect US neutrality.
Additionally, Jefferson and Madison agreed that a positive side effect of the Embargo Act would be the
encouragement of domestic manufacturing.
Britain did suffer greatly under the embargo. There were food riots in northern England, and textile mills shut
down without imported raw cotton. The British business class had begun to organize in efforts to push for an
end to British offenses at sea just as the Embargo Act was lifted. The British simply had a greater capacity for
finding ways around the embargo than did the US. For instance, new markets had opened in South America,
where a revolt against Spanish rule opened the door for British trade.
The US, on the other hand, was not prepared to deal with economic isolation. Roads were inadequate and
overland trade was exorbitantly expensive. The navy found it difficult to enforce the embargo and many
shippers willingly broke the terms of the Embargo Act. The nation as a whole was thrown into depression.
30,000 American sailors were unemployed, and jails filled with debtors who could not make good. Farmers,
who could not sell their produce abroad were devastated, and the embargo shut down the primary source of
income for New England's merchants. True, US manufacturing grew markedly during this period. Before 1808,
the US had only fifteen mills for turning cotton into textiles. By the end of 1809, that number had reached 102.
However, this did not lift the spirits of the struggling nation, which cried out for an end to the embargo.
The Embargo Act ended in failure, and the British and French continued to harass Americans at sea. Though
James Madison would cling to neutrality as dearly as his predecessors had before, he could not avoid the
outbreak of the War of 1812.
Despite this sour note, Jefferson left office having done much good for the nation. He had reduced taxes, cut
the national debt, and most importantly, more than doubled the size of the nation. He is remembered as a great
president both for the simple style with which he governed and his many accomplishments while in office.
Though the declining economic condition of the nation spurred the Federalists to a small comeback in the
congressional elections of 1808, the nation was still overwhelmingly Republican, and Madison had no trouble
winning the presidency. In that office, he would try to continue the Republican legacy Jefferson had started.
Study Questions
1) Thomas Jefferson commented late in life that the election of 1800 was "as real a revolution in the principles
of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." Why did Jefferson believe this, and was he correct?
Answer for Study Question 1
Jefferson and the Republicans saw themselves as the saviors of the nation, freeing it from the tyrannical grips
of a party bent on elitism and tending toward monarchy. While there was certainly a vast difference between
the Federalists' style of government and the Republican style which Jefferson would bring to the national
government, most historians think that to frame the transition as one from incipient monarchy to virtuous
republicanism is to exaggerate the circumstances a great deal. John Adams was certainly not in pursuit of
monarchy. He very much believed in the principles of democracy. However, he came from a school of thought
that considered all men to be basically evil, and he sought to place the power of government in the hands of the
least evil and most rational, which he thought to be represented by the political and social elites. Jefferson, for
his part, most likely similarly considered men to be driven by self-interest and greed. However, he was from the
school of thought which believed that the pursuit of self-interest could lead to social benefits, and thought that
government should not limit the governed so much that they could not undertake this pursuit. The difference in
ideology was thus not as stark as Jefferson would have painted it.
2) During the controversy over the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Republican Party took on the cause of states'
rights as their ideological cornerstone. However, in 1803, during the limited debate over the Louisiana
Purchase, House Federalists invoked the states' rights doctrine as well. Why did they take this action and what
does that say about the states' rights doctrine?
Answer for Study Question 2
While the majority of the nation supported the Louisiana Purchase, many Federalists raised some opposition to
it because they believed the expansion of the nation would dilute the political power of their strongholds on the
eastern seaboard. Jefferson's consistent assertion that the farmers were the backbone of America and would
benefit from this expansion of arable land did not help to assuage these fears. Thus what little debate there
was over ratification centered largely on the assertion on the part of the Federalist minority that no new states
should be created in the Louisiana Territory without the consent of the original thirteen. The Republican
majority easily rebuffed this claim, and the treaty was easily ratified. The appeal to states' rights by the
Federalists seems anomalous considering it had been the Republican opposition during John Adams'
presidency that had brought the issue to the fore, and the Federalists who had consistently advocated for a
strong central government. Historians point to the debate over ratification to argue that perhaps the states'
rights doctrine was less of an ideological cornerstone for the Republicans than a universally useful defense
mechanism raised by those out of power against those in control of the national government.
3) How did the secretary of treasury under Jefferson, Albert Gallatin, specifically target his initiatives to counter
the Federalist economics that Alexander Hamilton had established as the norm under George Washington's
presidency?
Answer for Study Question 3
Alexander Hamilton's main initiatives as secretary of treasury had been the establishment of a national bank, a
running national debt, and the regulation of commerce. Once in office, Jefferson and Gallatin strove to tear
down these remnants of Federalist economics one by one. Both Jefferson and Gallatin believed in the principle
of free trade and sought to cut regulation of commerce within reason. They immediately cut nearly all internal
taxes, and balanced the cut with reductions in the military, which had been built up under Adams. Frugal
spending and an increase in trade, which resulted in higher customs receipts, meant that by 1806 the US was
running a budgetary surplus which Gallatin used to pay down the debt. Gallatin's boldest move, which attacked
both the governmental attachment to the national bank and the national debt, was the 1802 sale of the US
government's stock in the bank to the House of Baring in London. Gallatin used the profit from this sale to pay
a large installment on the debt owed to the Dutch. Thus Gallatin had successfully attacked the bastions of
Federalist economics, and would continue to do so throughout his tenure.
Study Questions
How did the struggle for American neutrality evolve during Adams and Jefferson's presidencies? How did it
necessitate specific foreign relations policy?
By the election of 1800, the Republicans commanded far greater popular support than they had in 1796. Which
elements of the population had changed their allegiance and why?
What evidence is there to suggest that the Alien and Sedition Acts were purely politically motivated? In what
ways did the acts infringe upon guaranteed rights?
While in office, did Thomas Jefferson remain committed to the ideals of the Republican Party or did he lose
touch with his state's rights roots, as the Tertium Quids contended? What is the evidence to support each
argument?
In what ways was the Louisiana Purchase a boon to the US, and in what ways was it a curse?
Describe the various forces of subversion that existed in the American southwest. Why did these forces fail to
present a legitimate threat to the nation?
Describe the effects of the Embargo Act in Britain and in the US. What factors dictated the differing
experiences? How did these differences dictate the success or failure of the Embargo Act?