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Chapter 2 – Examining the Social World: How Do We Know? Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications The Development of Sociology • Social thought before sociology: strongly influenced by religion and philosophy • Modern sociology arose in 19th century Europe, influenced by several conditions: – Colonialism: exposure to other cultures – Industrial Revolution & French Revolution: desire to know how dramatic change could be systematically explained – Advances in the natural sciences: desire to apply scientific method to the social world Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications The Development of Sociology August Comte & the science of society • Coined the term “sociology” in 1838 • Thought society’s problems could not be understood by philosophical or religious speculation; scientific knowledge was needed • Two main concerns – What holds society together? (social statics or structure) – Why is there change in society? (social dynamics or process) Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications The Development of Sociology Early sociology after Comte • Focus on massive social and economic change brought by Industrial Revolution • Focus on relationship between micro-, meso-, and macro-level processes • Early sociological theorists: Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Harriet Martineau, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois • Use of scientific method to test ideas Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Three Sociological Traditions • Scientific sociology focuses on pure, objective analysis, modeled on natural science • Humanistic sociology focuses on the human capacity to create meaning, which can’t be captured by quantitative data Public Sociology aims to move the focus from classrooms and labs to communities – Sociology centered on improving society – Applied sociology focuses on practical ways to bring about change in organizations or society. Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Empirical Research & Social Theory Theory & research are interdependent • Theories are statements regarding how facts are related to each other – Sociological theories attempt to explain and make predictions about the social world • The researcher’s choice of theory and research method is guided by the research question and level of social analysis • Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look for • Researchers use facts to test theories Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Sociology’s Major Theoretical Perspectives Theoretical perspective: a basic view of society that • Guides sociological research and analysis • Provides an overall approach to understanding social behavior, social systems, and relationships between them • Can be micro- or macro-level; all can be used at the meso-level Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Micro-to-Meso Level Theories Symbolic interaction theory (or social construction, interpretative theory) • Main ideas: – People interact on the basis of shared symbols to construct a meaningful world—which then serves as a basis for further interaction. – Some emphasize agency, individuals’ active role in constructing their social environments, or how their social positions shape their constructions • Main criticisms: – Neglects macro-structures – Difficult to study concepts like “mind” and “self” • Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Micro-to-Meso Level Theories Rational choice theory (or exchange theory) • Main ideas: – People act by making rational, self-interested decisions that will maximize their rewards and minimize costs • Main criticisms: – Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal mental processes – Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior – People do not always act rationally or accurately assess their self-interest Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Meso- and Macro-Level Theories Structural-functional theory (or functional theory) • Main ideas: – Each part of society has a necessary function – Parts fit together into a stable, orderly whole – Functions may be manifest (planned) or latent (unintended); some things may be dysfunctional • Main criticisms: – – – – Some claims are abstract, difficult to test Can’t easily explain social change Assumes conflict is harmful, which isn’t always true Assumes stability is good, ignoring inequities • Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Merton Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Meso- and Macro- Level Theories Conflict theory • Main ideas: – Inequalities in resources and power create conflict, which underlies all social relations – The powerful impose their values and beliefs on weaker groups – Change leading to greater equality is desirable • Main criticisms: – – – – Neglects the micro-level Difficult to test empirically Cannot easily explain cohesion and cooperation Rests on assumption of self-interest • Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Coser Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Meso- and Macro- Level Theories Feminist sociological theory • Main ideas: – Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism – Social hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage men – Sociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting in an incomplete view of the world • Main criticisms: – Theory should address the intersection of gender, race, class, and other inequalities Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Multi-Level Analysis Max Weber’s contributions • Main ideas – Verstehen (understanding): emphasized the importance of interpreting the meanings people give to their actions (micro-level) – Focused on bureaucracy guided by rationality as key element of modern organizations (meso-level) – Examined how history has been shaped by politics, economics, religion, psychology, and ideas (macro-level) – Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism • Provides and explanation for how capitalists view the world Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Using Different Theoretical Perspectives No theory is right or wrong; each has advantages and disadvantages for studying particular levels or aspects of society. Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Ideas Underlying Science Thursday • How do we know? – Sociology uses scientific methods to expand knowledge of the social world – The Systematic use of theories and research methods makes sociology much more than guesswork or opinion Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Ideas Underlying Science Assumptions of science • There is a real physical and social world that can be studied systematically • The world is ordered by relations of cause and effect • The best way to know the world is through empirical testing, based on observed facts • Things that can’t be observed lie outside the scope of scientific inquiry • Science should be objective, or based on evidence rather than opinions Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications How Sociologists Study the Social World The research process: • Planning a research study • Designing the research plan and method for collecting data • Making sense of the data Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Planning a Study Steps in planning a study: 1. Define the problem clearly – The question must be specific and precise 2. Find out what is already known about topic – Review existing theory and research 3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables – Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship between two variables, which can be tested – Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence across persons, places, or time – Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a specific measurement Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Planning a Study (cont.) Deductive reasoning: moves from general theories to specific hypotheses Inductive reasoning: moves from specific facts (data) to more general theories Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Planning a Study (cont.) Research aims to find causal relationships Ways that two variables can be related: – Correlation: variables change together – Causation: one variable causes another to change • Independent variable (IV): the cause of change • Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes • Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV – Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship • Control variables help eliminate effects not related to the hypothesis, especially spurious relationships Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data • Research design is important: the value of a study depends upon the quality of its data • Research methods depend upon the level of analysis of the research question • Primary sociological research methods: – – – – – Surveys Field studies Controlled experiments Existing sources Triangulation Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Survey methods • Used to gather information from many people about how they think or what they want • Involves asking respondents a set of questions – Interviews: questions asked by phone or in person – Questionnaire: questions and other types of items • Question types – Open-ended: respondents can say what they wish – Closed-ended: respondents must choose from a set of predetermined answers Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Survey methods: considerations • Interviews and open-ended questions yield in-depth information, but are time consuming and costly • Questionnaires and closed-ended questions provide less information, but are cheaper and more practical Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Field studies (observational methods) • Used to systematically observe and record interaction in the settings where it takes place • Types of field study – Non-participant observation: observation only – Participant observation: researcher participates in and observes activities of group being studied – Ethnography: researcher uses observation, interviews, selfreflection, and other techniques to pursue any data relevant to the research problem, which may evolve over the course of the study Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Field study: considerations • Produces qualitative data – Qualitative data: written or verbal observations, used to interpret the meaning of something – Quantitative data: numerical, “hard” data, can be conveyed with percentages or tables • Participant observation: potential problems – Research effects: the group being studied may be altered by the presence of the researcher – Bias: researcher may become so involved in the group that objectivity becomes difficult Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Controlled experiments • Used as a powerful test of cause and effect • Elements of a controlled experiment – Researchers manipulate an independent variable and determine its effects while all other variables are held constant – Experimental group: subjects who are exposed to the effects of the independent variable – Control group: subjects not exposed to the independent variable – After the experimental group is exposed to the variable, the two groups are compared to determine its effects – Cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into the laboratory Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Controlled experiments: considerations • A valuable test, but: – Can’t be used for questions dealing with macro-level phenomenon that can’t be placed in a controlled situation – Can’t study questions involving independent variables that might cause harm to subjects – Research effects: subjects may be affected by the fact that they are in a laboratory setting Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Existing sources • Existing data is used in new ways, especially if: – Data from past years is desired – Study concerns meso- or macro- level social patterns • Major types – Secondary analysis: employs data already collected for other studies or by agencies such as the Census Bureau or United Nations – Content analysis: systematic recording and classification of information from written or recorded sources, e.g. newspapers or letters Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Existing sources: considerations • Existing data sources may be inexpensive; research is unobtrusive and may be easy to do • Potential problems: – Data may not represent the precise population the researcher wishes to study – Any problems with the original data will carry over into the secondary analysis – Data does not capture the “human side” of research questions as well as interview or observational data Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Triangulation (or multiple methods) • Multiple methods of data collection are used to increase the amount of data and the accuracy of findings • Survey methods, field study, experimentation, and existing sources may be used in various combinations Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Sampling (all methods) • Sample: a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the larger population being studied • Types of samples: – Representative: accurately reflects the population being studied, so findings can be generalized to the population – Random: every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample; the most common type of representative sample Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Designing Research & Collecting Data Analyzing data • The goal is to determine relationships between the variables – Variables must be clear – Researcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing relationships among variables – Discussion with and criticism from other researchers aids accuracy of analysis – Study should be replicable, or capable of being repeated so results can be compared Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Analysis: Making Sense of the Data Reporting conclusions • The researcher develops a report, including – Outline of project – Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that summarize the data – Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data? – Interpretations and recommendations • In social science no one study can definitively prove a hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or reject a hypothesis Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Ethical Issues in Social Research Sociological research is bound by ethical codes which generally require that: • Research subjects give informed consent to participate in studies • Subjects are not harmed or put at risk • Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily • Subjects’ private information is protected • Study findings do not cause harm Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and other research institutions help protect subjects Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications Putting Sociology to Work • Basic sociology (professional or academic sociology): emphasis on scientific analysis, theory building, knowledge production • Applied sociology (sociological practice): uses sociology to develop practical ways of improving society, often through policy • Public sociology: attempts to integrate sociology into communities in order to promote public debate and social change © SAGE Publications, Inc. 2017 Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications