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Chapter 2 – Examining the Social
World: How Do We Know?
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
The Development of Sociology
• Social thought before sociology: strongly influenced
by religion and philosophy
• Modern sociology arose in 19th century Europe,
influenced by several conditions:
– Colonialism: exposure to other cultures
– Industrial Revolution & French Revolution: desire to know
how dramatic change could be systematically explained
– Advances in the natural sciences: desire to apply scientific
method to the social world
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
The Development of Sociology
August Comte & the science of society
• Coined the term “sociology” in 1838
• Thought society’s problems could not be understood
by philosophical or religious speculation; scientific
knowledge was needed
• Two main concerns
– What holds society together?
(social statics or structure)
– Why is there change in society?
(social dynamics or process)
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
The Development of Sociology
Early sociology after Comte
• Focus on massive social and economic change
brought by Industrial Revolution
• Focus on relationship between micro-, meso-, and
macro-level processes
• Early sociological theorists: Emile Durkheim, Karl
Marx, Harriet Martineau, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois
• Use of scientific method to test ideas
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Three Sociological Traditions
• Scientific sociology focuses on pure, objective analysis,
modeled on natural science
• Humanistic sociology focuses on the human capacity
to create meaning, which can’t be captured by
quantitative data
Public Sociology aims to move the focus from classrooms
and labs to communities
– Sociology centered on improving society
– Applied sociology focuses on practical ways to bring about
change in organizations or society.
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Empirical Research & Social Theory
Theory & research are interdependent
• Theories are statements regarding how facts are related
to each other
– Sociological theories attempt to explain and make predictions
about the social world
• The researcher’s choice of theory and research method is
guided by the research question and level of social
analysis
• Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look for
• Researchers use facts to test theories
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Sociology’s Major Theoretical Perspectives
Theoretical perspective: a basic view of society
that
• Guides sociological research and analysis
• Provides an overall approach to understanding social
behavior, social systems, and relationships between
them
• Can be micro- or macro-level; all can be used at the
meso-level
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Micro-to-Meso Level Theories
Symbolic interaction theory
(or social construction, interpretative theory)
• Main ideas:
– People interact on the basis of shared symbols to construct a
meaningful world—which then serves as a basis for further
interaction.
– Some emphasize agency, individuals’ active role in constructing
their social environments, or how their social positions shape
their constructions
• Main criticisms:
– Neglects macro-structures
– Difficult to study concepts like “mind” and “self”
• Key theorists: George H. Mead, the Iowa School
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Micro-to-Meso Level Theories
Rational choice theory
(or exchange theory)
• Main ideas:
– People act by making rational, self-interested decisions
that will maximize their rewards and minimize costs
• Main criticisms:
– Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal
mental processes
– Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior
– People do not always act rationally or accurately assess
their self-interest
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Meso- and Macro-Level Theories
Structural-functional theory
(or functional theory)
• Main ideas:
– Each part of society has a necessary function
– Parts fit together into a stable, orderly whole
– Functions may be manifest (planned) or latent
(unintended); some things may be dysfunctional
• Main criticisms:
–
–
–
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Some claims are abstract, difficult to test
Can’t easily explain social change
Assumes conflict is harmful, which isn’t always true
Assumes stability is good, ignoring inequities
• Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Merton
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Meso- and Macro- Level Theories
Conflict theory
• Main ideas:
– Inequalities in resources and power create conflict, which
underlies all social relations
– The powerful impose their values and beliefs on weaker
groups
– Change leading to greater equality is desirable
• Main criticisms:
–
–
–
–
Neglects the micro-level
Difficult to test empirically
Cannot easily explain cohesion and cooperation
Rests on assumption of self-interest
• Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Coser
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Meso- and Macro- Level Theories
Feminist sociological theory
• Main ideas:
– Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism
– Social hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage
men
– Sociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting
in an incomplete view of the world
• Main criticisms:
– Theory should address the intersection of gender, race,
class, and other inequalities
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Multi-Level Analysis
Max Weber’s contributions
• Main ideas
– Verstehen (understanding): emphasized the importance of
interpreting the meanings people give to their actions
(micro-level)
– Focused on bureaucracy guided by rationality as key
element of modern organizations (meso-level)
– Examined how history has been shaped by politics,
economics, religion, psychology, and ideas (macro-level)
– Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
• Provides and explanation for how capitalists view the world
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Using Different Theoretical Perspectives
No theory is right or wrong; each has advantages and
disadvantages for studying particular levels or aspects
of society.
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Ideas Underlying Science
Thursday
• How do we know?
– Sociology uses scientific methods to expand
knowledge of the social world
– The Systematic use of theories and research
methods makes sociology much more than
guesswork or opinion
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Ideas Underlying Science
Assumptions of science
• There is a real physical and social world that can be
studied systematically
• The world is ordered by relations of cause and effect
• The best way to know the world is through empirical
testing, based on observed facts
• Things that can’t be observed lie outside the scope of
scientific inquiry
• Science should be objective, or based on evidence
rather than opinions
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
How Sociologists Study the Social World
The research process:
• Planning a research study
• Designing the research plan and method for collecting
data
• Making sense of the data
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Planning a Study
Steps in planning a study:
1. Define the problem clearly
– The question must be specific and precise
2. Find out what is already known about topic
– Review existing theory and research
3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables
– Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship
between two variables, which can be tested
– Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence
across persons, places, or time
– Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a
specific measurement
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Planning a Study (cont.)
Deductive reasoning:
moves from general
theories to specific
hypotheses
Inductive reasoning:
moves from specific
facts (data) to more
general theories
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Planning a Study (cont.)
Research aims to find causal relationships
Ways that two variables can be related:
– Correlation: variables change together
– Causation: one variable causes another to change
• Independent variable (IV): the cause of change
• Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes
• Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV
– Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to
effects of a third variable; not a causal relationship
• Control variables help eliminate effects not related to the
hypothesis, especially spurious relationships
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
• Research design is important: the value of a study
depends upon the quality of its data
• Research methods depend upon the level of analysis
of the research question
• Primary sociological research methods:
–
–
–
–
–
Surveys
Field studies
Controlled experiments
Existing sources
Triangulation
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Survey methods
• Used to gather information from many people about
how they think or what they want
• Involves asking respondents a set of questions
– Interviews: questions asked by phone or in person
– Questionnaire: questions and other types of items
• Question types
– Open-ended: respondents can say what they wish
– Closed-ended: respondents must choose from a set of
predetermined answers
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Survey methods: considerations
• Interviews and open-ended questions yield in-depth
information, but are time consuming and costly
• Questionnaires and closed-ended questions provide
less information, but are cheaper and more practical
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Field studies (observational methods)
• Used to systematically observe and record interaction
in the settings where it takes place
• Types of field study
– Non-participant observation: observation only
– Participant observation: researcher participates in and
observes activities of group being studied
– Ethnography: researcher uses observation, interviews, selfreflection, and other techniques to pursue any data
relevant to the research problem, which may evolve over
the course of the study
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Field study: considerations
• Produces qualitative data
– Qualitative data: written or verbal observations, used to
interpret the meaning of something
– Quantitative data: numerical, “hard” data, can be conveyed
with percentages or tables
• Participant observation: potential problems
– Research effects: the group being studied may be altered by
the presence of the researcher
– Bias: researcher may become so involved in the group that
objectivity becomes difficult
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Controlled experiments
• Used as a powerful test of cause and effect
• Elements of a controlled experiment
– Researchers manipulate an independent variable and determine
its effects while all other variables are held constant
– Experimental group: subjects who are exposed to the effects of
the independent variable
– Control group: subjects not exposed to the independent variable
– After the experimental group is exposed to the variable, the two
groups are compared to determine its effects
– Cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research
effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables
into the laboratory
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Controlled experiments: considerations
• A valuable test, but:
– Can’t be used for questions dealing with macro-level
phenomenon that can’t be placed in a controlled situation
– Can’t study questions involving independent variables that
might cause harm to subjects
– Research effects: subjects may be affected by the fact that
they are in a laboratory setting
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Existing sources
• Existing data is used in new ways, especially if:
– Data from past years is desired
– Study concerns meso- or macro- level social patterns
• Major types
– Secondary analysis: employs data already collected for
other studies or by agencies such as the Census Bureau or
United Nations
– Content analysis: systematic recording and classification of
information from written or recorded sources, e.g.
newspapers or letters
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Existing sources: considerations
• Existing data sources may be inexpensive; research is
unobtrusive and may be easy to do
• Potential problems:
– Data may not represent the precise population the
researcher wishes to study
– Any problems with the original data will carry over into the
secondary analysis
– Data does not capture the “human side” of research
questions as well as interview or observational data
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Triangulation (or multiple methods)
• Multiple methods of data collection are used to
increase the amount of data and the accuracy of
findings
• Survey methods, field study, experimentation, and
existing sources may be used in various combinations
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Sampling (all methods)
• Sample: a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the larger
population being studied
• Types of samples:
– Representative: accurately reflects the population
being studied, so findings can be generalized to the
population
– Random: every person in the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the sample; the
most common type of representative sample
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Analyzing data
• The goal is to determine relationships between the
variables
– Variables must be clear
– Researcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing
relationships among variables
– Discussion with and criticism from other researchers aids
accuracy of analysis
– Study should be replicable, or capable of being repeated
so results can be compared
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Analysis: Making Sense of the Data
Reporting conclusions
• The researcher develops a report, including
– Outline of project
– Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that
summarize the data
– Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data?
– Interpretations and recommendations
• In social science no one study can definitively prove a
hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or
reject a hypothesis
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Ethical Issues in Social Research
Sociological research is bound by ethical codes
which generally require that:
• Research subjects give informed consent to
participate in studies
• Subjects are not harmed or put at risk
• Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily
• Subjects’ private information is protected
• Study findings do not cause harm
Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and other
research institutions help protect subjects
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications
Putting Sociology to Work
• Basic sociology (professional or academic
sociology): emphasis on scientific analysis, theory
building, knowledge production
• Applied sociology (sociological practice): uses
sociology to develop practical ways of improving
society, often through policy
• Public sociology: attempts to integrate sociology
into communities in order to promote public debate
and social change
© SAGE Publications, Inc. 2017
Ballantine, Roberts, and Korgen. Our Social World: Condensed, Fourth Edition. © 2015 SAGE Publications