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26/08/2010
Perspectives in restoration of biodiversity and
ecosystem services in Mediterranean agricultural
landscapes
2010 SER European Congress - Avignon
José M. Rey Benayas
It is evident that …
Agricultural frontier is expanding in most of the world
Agricultural production is subjected to increasing
intensification
Amount of degraded land and loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem services are increasing as well
In some parts, large extents of cropland and pasture land
have been, are being or will be abandoned
Many landscapes and species linked to farmland have
conservation value
Anthropogenic biomes on the world map
Mostly absence of wild lands
>75% of Earth’s ice-free land showed alteration as a result of human
residence and land use, with less than a quarter remaining as
wildlands (wild forests, sparse trees, and barren; only 3 out of 63
major ecosystem types), supporting just 11% of terrestrial NPP.
Ellis & Ramankutty 2008
Agricultural land extends over 40% of the land’s surface
31% of cropland
18% of pasture land
Foley et al. 2005 for maps; FAOSTAT database for statistics in Europe +27 (yr 2007)
Biodiversity and ecosystem services
Sought in agricultural systems
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005
Relationship between biodiversity and provision of
ecosystem services in restored vs. degraded ecosystems
Increasing biodiversity from low values has
relatively strong impacts on ecosystem function
Rey Benayas et al. 2009
Outline
The agriculture and conservation paradox
Enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem services in
agricultural landscapes
Restoration in the real world
The agriculture and conservation paradox
Enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem services in
agricultural landscapes
Restoration in the real world
Coexistence of farmland abandonment and intensification in
Europe
Rain-fed cropland: -11%
Cropland (x1000 ha)
160000
Irrigated cropland: x2.12
140000
?
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
19
6
19 1
6
19 3
6
19 5
6
19 7
6
19 9
7
19 1
7
19 3
7
19 5
7
19 7
7
19 9
8
19 1
8
19 3
8
19 5
8
19 7
8
19 9
9
19 1
9
19 3
9
19 5
9
19 7
9
20 9
0
20 1
0
20 3
0
20 5
07
0
Year
FAOSTAT database (Europe +27 countries)
Agriculture, a major cause of environmental impacts
worldwide
Agriculture accounts for ca. 12% of total global anthropogenic
emissions of Greenhouse Gasses
BirdLife International 2008 and IPCC 2007
Summary of the state of EU-wide environment
indicators relating to agriculture
A total of 36 indicators related to agricultural landscapes,
farmland biodiversity, water quality, water availability, soil
functionality, climate stability – carbon storage, climate
stability – greenhouse gas emissions, air-quality, resilience
to fire, and agricultural land use
10 are clearly negative and 2 are mostly negative
6 are clearly positive and 1 is mostly positive
4 indicate no change
5 indicate a heterogeneous response
8 are of unclear trend
Cooper et al. 2009
Overall harmful effects of agriculture intensification on
biodiversity
“We conclude that despite decades of European policy to ban harmful
pesticides, the negative effects of pesticides on wild plant and animal
species persist, …”.
Geiger et al. 2010
Farmland abandonment leading to “passive” restoration
In the world, ca. 45,000 km2/year (FAO 2006)
It is genuine and free, but usually slow in low productivity regions
Tree plantations
In the world, ca. 28,000 km2/year (FAO 2006)
It is more rapid and expensive, and targets specific objectives
Net change in forest area by country, 2005–2010 (ha/yr)
Deforestation = 13 million ha/yr
FAO 2010
Regional trends of common farmland birds in Europe
European Bird Census Council 2010
Agriculture and conservation in Europe
Habitats Directive EU: 4 out of 7 broad categories of
terrestrial habitats include farmland (grassland,
matorral, dehesas, etc.)
In the EU-27, 31% of Natura 2000 sites are under
agricultural land management
Many species depend upon extensive agricultural
systems
Recent changes in vineyards
La Mancha (central Spain)
The agriculture and conservation paradox
Enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem
services in agricultural landscapes
Restoration in the real world
Reversing farmland negative indicators – A range of
possibilities around three major types of intervention
Extensive actions: Making cropland and pasture land
themselves more environmentally friendly – e.g. returning to
traditional farming practices, transformation of conventional
agriculture into organic agriculture and of “simple” crops and
pastures into agro-forestry systems
Farmland manicure: Restoring or creating target elements to
benefit wildlife and particular services – e.g. living fences,
beetle banks, stone walls, stone mounds, perches and nestboxes for birds, drinking troughs and rural architecture
Restoring or creating non-farmland habitat in agricultural
landscapes – e.g. woodland and wetlands, ponds, meadow
and grassland
Reversing farmland negative indicators – A range of
possibilities around three major types of intervention
Extensive actions: Making cropland and pasture land
themselves more environmentally friendly – e.g. returning to
traditional farming practices, transformation of conventional
agriculture into organic agriculture and of “simple” crops and
pastures into agro-forestry systems
Farmland manicure: Restoring or creating target elements to
benefit wildlife and particular services – e.g. living fences,
beetle banks, stone walls, stone mounds, perches and nestboxes for birds, drinking troughs and rural architecture
Restoring or creating non-farmland habitat in agricultural
landscapes – e.g. woodland and wetlands, ponds, meadow
and grassland
% of total agricultural area
Expansion of organic farmland area in Europe
European Environment Agency and eurostat 2010
7,764,722 ha = 4.1%
in EU27+ in 2008
Benefits of organic farming to the environment
Less contamination by fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides
Increasing of biodiversity, particularly of plants,
invertebrates and microbes
Increasing of carbon sequestration and nutrients in soil
Natural enhancement of pest control
66.7% studies showed positive effects of organic farming on biodiversity
Soil C levels under organic vs. non-organic farming
“At a global level, assuming a possible
sequestration level of 1tC/ha/year for organic
farming best practices (including composting and
agro-forestry), we estimate that widespread
organic farming could potentially sequester 1.5
billion tC per year, which would offset about 11%
of all anthropogenic global GHG emissions for at
least the next 20 years”.
Azeez 2009
Transformation of “simple” crops and pastures into
agroforestry systems
Agro-forestry is the purposeful
growing of trees/shrubs and
crops/pasture
The tropical connotation to most
land-use experts is a wrong
perception
It has several opportunities in
the temperate regions too
Overall, it enhances the
provision of biodiversity and
ecosystem services as compared
to crops/pastures alone
Rigueiro-Rodríguez et al. 2009
The forest restoration staircase
Chazdon 2008
Transformation of a cereal crop into an olive-based
agroforestry system
Field of 1.9 ha
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Organic olive tree plantation: expected sequestration
of ca. 3 tCO2/ha yr (Cárdenas 2009)
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Plantation of singular fruit trees (creation of a genetic
reserve)
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Hedge introduction (9 woody species, 800 plants)
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Conditioning of stone mounds
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Creation of a pond
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Free-range chickens
Source: FIRE and INAMSOS, S. A.
Enhancement of prey birds for rodent control
A project motivated by periodic Microtus arvalis (field vole)
plagues
The 2007 plague was intensively attacked with poison that
caused severe damage to wildlife and game
Enhancement of prey birds for rodent control
Common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and barn owl (Tyto
alba) are rodent predators
They exhibit declining populations for a number of reasons,
including lack of sites for nesting in open landscapes
More nesting sites would increase their populations
Enhancement of prey birds for rodent control
Objective: to place common kestrel and barn owl
populations at their carrying capacities
A nest-box/10 ha, 200 boxes in total
Occupancy in the first year = 19% for kestrel, 0%
for barn owl
Productivity for kestrel: 3.6 juveniles/nest
Rodent consumption: ca. 3,500 kg/yr!
Woodland restoration – the paradox creates a dilemma
Conflicts due to deforestation
Conflicts due to farmland abandonment
Conflicts due to farmland afforestation
Conflicts due to agriculture intensification
Agriculture – woodland in permanent conflict
Is it possible to conciliate agricultural production,
conservation of values linked to farmland and woodland
restoration?
Intensification of land use has brought remnant areas
of natural vegetation into mainstream agriculture
Not a single woody plant in many km2, absence of
seed sources, bottle neck for passive restoration
Maybe good for C sequestration
and erosion mitigation …
Agricultural sea in Salamanca, central Spain
… but not for
farmland
biodiversity
conservation
Woodland islets in agricultural seas …
Islets introduced 17 years ago
… to conciliate agriculture, provision of biodiversity
and a range of ecosystem services
Plantation of dense blocks with woody
native vegetation
They export propagules that
accelerate passive restoration
They are islands of biodiversity and
fertility that sequestrate C
Matrix under exploitation
Rey Benayas et al. 2008
1
2
3
Rey Benayas et al. 2008
4
5
They can be strategically placed
Garrulus glandiarus
Pica pica
Every km
Campo de Montiel, central Spain
Effects of two contrasted trajectories of Mediterranean
woodland restoration on bird community composition
Better habitat for species of
conservation value in Europe
Rey Benayas et al. 2010
Wetland restoration
Creation of direct and
indirect employment
related to eco-tourism
Number of visitors/yr:
- 10,000 in Boada
- 4,000 in Villacañas
- 1,500 in Louro
Irrigation offers opportunities for wetland construction
and their associated biodiversity and ecosystem services
Los Monegros desert, northeast Spain
Constructed wetlands 50-5000 m2 in size improved
water quality
“At the current retention rate of NO3-N (76–227 gm−2yr−1), 1.5–4% of
the catchment should be converted into wetlands to optimize the
elimination of NO3-N”
Moreno et al. 2010
Extraordinary rainy events (e.g. 2009-2010) should favour
wetland restoration
The agriculture and conservation paradox
Enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem services in
agricultural landscapes
Restoration in the real world
Ground Penetration Radar to estimate
root development of oak plantings
Field research for assisting revegetation
If Further research is needed …
Action is desperately needed
Gift from the students of the Master’s on Ecosystem Restoration (2009)
Projection of Global Ecological Footprint to 2015
Hockley et al. 2008
State of, pressures on, and responses for biodiversity since 1970
Butchart et al. 2010
Key issues for widespread ecological restoration of/in
farmland habitat: financial support, education and
training
Major UE policy measures to support the provision of
environmental public goods through agriculture
Agri-environment measures: € 34 billion including cofinancing for 2007-2013, 22% of the expenditure for rural
development, 34 million ha affected
Life + Programme: € 2.14 billion for the period 2007-2013
Natura 2000: € 6.1 billion/yr for the period 2007-2013, ca. 15
million ha under agricultural management
Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition: GAEC
standards that specify actions beyond existing legislation
focusing specifically on maintaining landscape features,
habitats, soil functionality or water quality
Structural funds: Projects under the heading ‘Preservation of
the environment in connection with land…and landscape
conservation’
Recent CAP afforestation measures in Europe
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 2080/92 of 1992 instituted a
scheme of aid for forestry measures in agriculture
Ca. 520,000 ha afforested between 1993 and 1997
A second program, running between 2000 and 2006,
afforested > 200,000 ha of land
A third such program began in 2007, ca. 1 million ha
afforested to date
The amount of afforested farmland will increase due to e.g.
vineyard extirpation (175,000 ha in the 2008-2011 period for
central Spain, 71,908 of which have already been extirpated)
Other issues related to financial support in Europe
Relatively low tax deduction associated to donations to nonprofitable organizations, figures: 60-65% in France, 25% in
Spain, >90% in the US
Under-developed schemes for payment for environmental
services
Being ecologically intelligent – Education and public
awareness for valuing farmland biodiversity and services
The role of farmers
Mostly limited engagement
with agri-environmental
schemes
Limited understanding of
reasoning
Antipathetic bureaucracy
High cultural inertia
Usually low flexibility to
adopt new approaches
Education and training of
farmers
Gewin 2010
Take-home messages
In spite agriculture is a major cause of environmental impact,
ecological restoration in/of farmland habitat offers
opportunities to conciliate agricultural production with
enhancement of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Beyond scientific and technical research, spread of such
restoration projects is urgently needed if we want to halt
environmental degradation and biodiversity loss
We need widespread expansion of organic farming,
agroforestry systems and farmland “manicure”; converting
some farmland into other natural ecosystems will not hurt
Financial support, public awareness, education and training,
particularly of farmers, are necessary to meet these goals
Restoration actions can act as an engine of economy and a
source of green employment, so policymakers have an extra
incentive to restore degraded farmland habitat
Thanks to many colleagues, students, and projects
Thank you!
“... Biodiversity will be retained to the extent that whole regions
are managed cooperatively among protected areas, farmers,
foresters, and other neighboring land users” (Miller)
Related publications at http://www2.uah.es/josemrey, [email protected]