Download AP World History Semester II Review Students should be familiar

AP World History Semester II Review
Students should be familiar with the following topics and/or concepts:
Global Interactions c.1450 – c.1750
1.
Technological Developments in the 15th Century: 4.1.II
European technological developments in cartography and navigation built on
previous knowledge developed in the classical, Islamic and Asian worlds, and included the
production of new tools (such as the astrolabe or revised maps), innovations in ship designs
(such as caravels), and an improved understanding of global wind and currents patterns — all of
which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.

Portuguese mariners visiting the Indian Ocean in the late fifteenth century
encountered Arab sailors using simpler and more serviceable instruments for determining
latitude, which the Portuguese then used as models for the construction of cross staffs and back
staffs (which measured the angle of the sun or pole star above the horizon).

Portuguese mariners also developed (and other Europeans later copied) a strategy
called the volta do mar, which was the practice of avoiding strong head winds and sailing out of
their way to capture better prevailing winds.
2.
Region least impacted by Europeans between 1450 and 1750: 4.1.III.E
In Oceania and Polynesia, established exchange and communication networks were
not dramatically affected because of infrequent European reconnaissance in the Pacific Ocean.

Because their primary goal was to link New Spain to Asian markets (via the
Philippines), the Spanish rarely went out of their way to explore the Pacific Ocean or to search
for other islands.
3.
Trans-Atlantic Imports: 4.2.I.D
The purchase and transport of slaves supported the growth of the plantation
economy throughout the Americas.

The labor demands of cane cultivation and sugar production exacted a heavy toll
from slave communities. In Brazil, as in most other plantation societies, the number of deaths in
the slave population (5 to 10 percent of the slaves annually) usually exceeded the number of
births, so there was a constant demand for more slaves.
4.
Accounts of the conquistadores: 4.1.III.E
This will be a question based on a primary source.
5.
Social system imposed by the Spanish on their American colonies: 4.2.I.D
The purchase and transport of slaves supported the growth of the plantation
economy throughout the Americas.

The Spanish used two main types of coerced labor in the Americas. To mine silver
near Potosi, they adapted the Inca practice of requisitioning draft labor, known as the
mita system, to recruit workers for particularly difficult and dangerous chores that free
laborers would not accept. Under the mita system, Spanish authorities annually required
each native village to send one-seventh of its male population to work for four months in
the silver mines. They received payment for their work, but wages were very low and
conditions could be deadly. Many native men sought to evade mita obligations by fleeing

to cities or distant villages, so the mita system influenced settlement patterns across the
Andean region of South America.
On large estates, or haciendas, the major source of labor was the indigenous
population, which was organized under the encomienda system. Under this system,
Spanish conquerors were allowed to exact both labor and tribute from indigenous
peoples while looking out for their welfare and perhaps converting them to Christianity.
In reality, from the 1520s to the 1540s, the encomienda system led to so many abuses
that Catholic missionaries protested and the practice fell out of use. Spanish landowners
then resorted to a system of debt peonage, loaning to native peoples the money required
to purchase seeds, tools and supplies. The natives repaid the loans with labor, but their
wages were so low they could never pay off their debts. Because it was against the law for
debtors to flee, Spanish landowners effectively had a captive labor force to work their
estates.
6.
A syncretic blend of Islam and Hinduism: 4.1.VI.D
Syncretic forms of religion (such as African influences in Latin America, interactions
between Amerindians and Catholic missionaries, or Sikhism between Muslims and Hindus in
India and Southeast Asia) developed.

The Mughal emperor Akbar supported the efforts of early Sikhs, who combined
elements of Hinduism and Islam in a new syncretic faith.
7.
4.2.II.B
Dominant elite class in their society throughout the time period 1450 – 1750:
The power of existing political and economic elites (such as the zamindars in the
Mughal Empire, the nobility in Europe or the daimyo in Japan) fluctuated as they confronted
new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and
leaders.

In Europe, the nobility saw challenges to their political power from two fronts. In
constitutional states like England and the Dutch Republic, the challenge emerged from below as
a growing class of prosperous merchants became especially prominent figures in political affairs,
and state policy in both lands favored maritime trade and the building of commercial empires
overseas. From above, the nobility were subjected to royal justice and royal policy by strong
monarchs. In lands that adopted Protestant faiths – England, much of Germany, Denmark and
Sweden – rulers expropriated monasteries and used church wealth to expand their powers. In
Catholic absolute monarchies, such as France and Spain, rulers justified the mobilization of
more resources to solidify their rule as an appropriate response to the threat of Protestantism,
and their standing armies vastly increased their power with respect to the nobility.

In Japan, the daimyo (“great names”) were about 260 or so powerful territorial lords
who enjoyed near-absolute rule within their domains. Violent conflict emerged among the
daimyo during the 16th century, as these territorial rulers manufactured and used gunpowder
weapons technology they learned about from contacts with European mariners. But under the
military government of the Tokugawa Shogunate, a new policy of “alternate attendance” began
to control the daimyo by requiring them to maintain their families at Edo (modern Tokyo) and
spend every other year at the Tokugawa court so their activities could be more closely
monitored. The shoguns also required marriage alliances between daimyo families to first get
shogun approval, and the daimyo were discouraged from visiting one another.
8.
Ottoman Empire state-building techniques: 4.3.I.C
States treated different ethnic and religious groups in ways that utilized their
economic contributions while limiting their ability to challenge the authority of the state (such
as the Ottoman treatment of non-Muslim subjects, Manchu policies toward Chinese or the
Spanish creation of a separate “República de Indios”).

The Ottomans did not require conquered peoples to convert to Islam but extended
to them the status of dhimmi (“protected people”). In return for their loyalty and payment of a
special tax known as jizya, dhimmi communities retained their personal freedoms, kept their
property, practiced their religion and handled their legal affairs. Autonomous religious
communities in the Ottoman Empire were known as millet and retained their civil laws,
traditions and languages, and usually also assumed social and administrative functions in
matters concerning birth, marriage, death, health and education. Allowing for millets enabled
the Ottomans to better administer their very diverse realm of numerous ethnicities and
religions.
9.
Piracy in the Atlantic world: 4.3.III
Competition over trade routes (such as Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean
or piracy in the Caribbean), state rivalries (such as the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid
conflict) and local resistance (such as bread riots) all provided significant challenges to state
consolidation and expansion.

English pirates and privateers preyed on Spanish shipping from Mexico, often
seizing vessels carrying cargoes of silver. English and French forces constantly skirmished and
fought over sugar islands in the Caribbean while also contesting territorial claims in North
America. Almost all conflicts between European states in the 18th century spilled over into the
Caribbean and the Americas.
10.
Divine Right of Kings: 4.3.I.B
Rulers used religious ideas (such as European notions of divine right, the Safavid
use of Shiism, the Mexica or Aztec practice of human sacrifice, the Songhai promotion of Islam
or the Chinese emperors’ public performance of Confucian rituals) to legitimize their rule.

The “divine right of kings” held that kings derived their authority directly from God
and served as “God’s lieutenants upon earth.” There was no role in divine-right theory
for common subjects or even nobles in public affairs: the king made law and determined
policy. Noncompliance or disobedience merited punishment, and rebellion was a
despicable act tantamount to blasphemy.
11.
4.3.I.D
The development of military forces in Eurasia between 1450 and 1750:
Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military
professionals (such as the Ottoman devshirme, Chinese examination system or salaried
samurai), became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over
their populations and resources.

The Ottomans’ devshirme required the Christian population in the Balkans to
contribute young boys to become slaves to the sultan. They were given special training,
learned Turkish, and converted to Islam. Based on their ability, they entered either the
Ottoman civilian bureaucracy or the military. Those who became soldiers were known as
Janissaries, an elite fighting force.

Samurai were professional warriors in Japan, paid by and serving the daimyo. But
once stability was achieved with the Tokugawa Shogunate, the daimyo and their samurai
were pushed to become bureaucrats and government functionaries, because it was in the
interests of the Tokugawa authorities to reduce the number of armed professionals in
Japan, who could emerge as potential threats to their power.
Floating Worlds in Japan: 4.1.VII.B
12.
Literacy expanded and was accompanied by the proliferation of popular literary
forms in Europe and Asia (such as Shakespeare, Cervantes, Sundiata, Journey to the West or
Kabuki).

The centers of Tokugawa urban culture were the “floating worlds” – entertainment
and pleasure quarters where teahouses, theaters, brothels and public baths offered
escape from social responsibilities and the rigid rules of conduct that governed public
behavior in Tokugawa society.

Beginning in the 17th century, two new forms of drama became popular. One was
kabuki theater, which usually featured several acts consisting of lively and sometimes
bawdy skits where stylized acting combined with lyric singing, dancing and spectacular
staging. A crucial component of kabuki was the actor’s ability to improvise and embellish
the dialogue, for the text of plays served only as guides for the dramatic performance.
The other new dramatic form was bunraku, the puppet theater, in which chanters
accompanied by music told a story acted out by puppets.
Renaissance artistic developments: 4.1.VII.A
13.
Innovations in visual and performing arts (such as Renaissance art in Europe,
miniature paintings in the Middle East and South Asia, wood-block prints in Japan or postconquest codices in Mesoamerica) were seen all over the world.

Italian Renaissance artists like Leonardo da Vinci used linear perspective to
represent lifelike three-dimensional reality on two-dimensional surfaces, while sculptors
like Michelangelo depicted subjects in natural poses that reflected the actual workings of
human muscles rather than the awkward, rigid postures seen in earlier medieval art.
Challenges to the Roman Catholic Church: 4.1.VI.B
14.




The practice of Christianity was increasingly diversified by the Reformation.
During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church became heavily embroiled in
political affairs in Western Europe. Its growing wealth and power sometimes gave way to
greed and corruption, and critics attacked the Church’s materialism for centuries. But
the Protestant Reformation was ignited in the early 16th century by the German monk
Martin Luther, who attacked the Church’s sale of indulgences (ways to buy yourself out
of sin and avoid purgatory) and argued that the Bible was the ONLY source of Christian
religious authority (so it should be published in the vernacular rather than Latin). His
ideas spread rapidly thanks to the printing press.
In England the Reformation began from a blend of political as well as religious
reasons. Henry VIII objected when the pope would not annul his marriage so he could
remarry and have a male heir. He severed ties to the Roman Catholic Church and made
himself the Supreme Head of the Anglican Church – an English pope, as it were.
The French lawyer John Calvin codified Protestant teachings and presented them as
a coherent and organized package. He also organized a Protestant community in Frenchspeaking Geneva, Switzerland, that featured a strict code of morality and discipline. He
believed that only a few “elect” were predestined to go to heaven. Calvin’s influence was
substantial across Europe, especially in the Netherlands and Scotland.
Facing the Protestant challenge, Roman Catholic authorities undertook an
enormous reform effort within their own church that came to be known as the Catholic
Reformation – or Catholic Counter-Reformation. They wanted to define points of
doctrine so as to clarify differences between Roman and Protestant churches, to
persuade Protestants to return to the Roman church, and to deepen the sense of
spirituality and religious commitment in their own community. One institution that
emerged as a central part of this Catholic Reformation, the Council of Trent, was an
assembly of high church officials who met intermittently between 1545 and 1563. The
council acknowledged that abuses had alienated many people from the Roman church,
and its reforms included demands that church authorities observe strict standards of
morality and establish schools and seminaries to prepare priests properly for their roles.
Members of the Society of Jesus (founded by St. Ignatius Loyola), meanwhile, were
called Jesuits. They became the most prominent and effect Christian missionaries,
attracting converts in India, China, Japan and the Philippines.
Muslim Empires geography: 4.3.II.B
15.
Land empires, including the Manchus, Mughals, Ottomans and Russians, expanded
dramatically in size.
 The Ottomans, headquartered in Istanbul, encircled much of the Mediterranean,
including north Africa, modern Turkey and the Middle East. The Safavids covered
modern Iran, while the Mughals covered modern Pakistan and India. (Study the map in
Bentley, p. 597)
Chronologically (earliest to latest) of the Chinese dynasties: 4.3.I
16.

17.
Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.
Crossing this time period, the Ming dynasty lasted from 1368 to 1644, while the
Qing dynasty (or Manchus) lasted from 1644 to 1911. Remember the song: Shang, Zhou,
Qin, Han/repeat/Sui, Tang, Song/repeat/Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic/repeat/Mao
Zedong, Deng Xiaoping.
Sunni-Shiite rivalries: 4.3.III
Competition over trade routes (such as Omani-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean
or piracy in the Caribbean), state rivalries (such as the Thirty Years War or the Ottoman-Safavid
conflict) and local resistance (such as bread riots) all provided significant challenges to state
consolidation and expansion.

You’ll recall that the dispute that led to the Sunni-Shia split centuries earlier
concerned who should rightfully be the successor to Muhammad. Shiite Muslims, the
minority, believed the successor should be a blood relative, while the majority Sunni
Muslims believed the successor should be the Muslim best able to lead, as selected by the
elites of the Muslim community. The Safavids eventually settled on a form of Shiism that
appealed to the nomadic Turkish tribes moving into the area in the post-Mongol period.
They practiced Twelver Shiism, holding that there had been twelve infallible imams
(religious leaders) after Muhammad, beginning with the prophet’s cousin and son-in-law
Ali. The twelfth, “hidden,” imam had gone into hiding around 874 to escape persecution,
but the Twelver Shiites believed he was still alive and would one day return to take power
and spread his true religion. Safavid propaganda suggested that the ruling Shah Ismail
(r. 1501-1524) was himself the hidden imam, or even an incarnation of Allah. This
appealed to Turkish conceptions of leadership that associated military leaders with
divinity.

Shah Ismail made conversion to Shiite Islam mandatory for the largely Sunni
population, which agitated his staunchly Sunni neighbors to the west, the Ottomans.
These two empires clashed repeatedly, but one critical battle took place on the plain of
Chaldiran in 1514, where Ottoman Janissaries equipped with superior gunpowder
technology devastated Safavid warriors who refused to use firearms because they were
unreliable and unmanly. The Ottomans badly damaged the Safavids but could not
completely conquer them.
18.
Gunpowder Empires: 4.3.II
Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons and armed trade
to establish large empires in both hemispheres.
 The Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals are referred to as “gunpowder empires” because of
the reasons mentioned in the key concept above. The Safavids and Mughals incorporated
gunpowder weapons into their arsenals, but it was the Ottomans who made especially
effective use of these weapons that transformed early modern warfare.
19.
English Civil War: 4.2.II.B
The power of existing political and economic elites (such as the zamindars in the
Mughal Empire, the nobility in Europe or the daimyo in Japan) fluctuated as they confronted
new challenges to their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and
leaders.

The English Civil War (1642-1649) came about after English kings in the early 17th
century tried to institute new taxes without the approval of the parliament, which for
more than three centuries had traditionally approved new levies. Religious tensions
complicated matters further. As Anglicans, the kings supported a church with relatively
ornate ceremonies and a hierarchy of bishops working under the authority of the
monarchs themselves. Many of the loudest critics in the parliament, meanwhile, were
zealous Calvinists known as Puritans because they wanted to purify the English church of
any lingering elements resembling Roman Catholicism. Eventually King Charles I and
parliament couldn’t even communicate effectively with each other and both sides raised
armies and fought. Parliamentary forces under Oliver Cromwell captured Charles, tried
and convicted him of treason, and beheaded him in 1649.
20.
Peter the Great’s reforms: 4.3.II.B
Land empires, including the Manchus, Mughals, Ottomans and Russians, expanded
dramatically in size.

Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) and a large party of observers traveled to Germany,
the Netherlands and England on a “Grand Embassy” to learn about western European
administrative methods and military technology. His goal was to Westernize Russia, and
thereby turn it into a great military power like those that had recently emerged in
western Europe. When he returned to Moscow, he reformed his army by offering better
pay and drafting peasants to serve for life as professional soldiers. He trained them
extensively and equipped them with modern weapons. He ordered aristocrats to study
mathematics and geometry so they could calculate how to aim cannons accurately. He
also began construction of a navy with an eye toward domination of the Baltic and other
northern seas. Administratively, he overhauled the Russian bureaucracy to facilitate
better tax collection, and socially, he commanded aristocratic subjects to wear western
European fashions and shave off their traditional beards.
Industrialization & Global Integration c. 1750 – c. 1900
21.
Seven Years War: 5.2.I.A
States with existing colonies (such as the British in India or the Dutch in Indonesia)
strengthened their control over those colonies.

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) was a global conflict that pitted Britain and
Prussia against France, Austria and Russia in four distinct geographic theaters – Europe,
India, the Caribbean and North America. It involved Asian and indigenous American
peoples as well. In India, British and French forces each allied with local Indian princes
in a contest to control the Indian Ocean basin. The British armies and navies handily
dispatched the French, ousting their merchants from India. (The British also took
control of North America, though a little more than a decade later its American colonies
declared their independence.) Britain came out of the Seven Years’ War primed as the
foremost imperial power in the world for the next 150 years.
22.
Enlightenment Ideals: 5.3.I.A
Enlightenment thinkers (such as Voltaire or Rousseau) applied new ways of
understanding the natural world to human relationships, encouraging observation and inference
in all spheres of life.

Spring-boarding from the ideas of Newton and the Scientific Revolution, European
and Euro-American thinkers launched an ambitious project to transform human thought
and to use reason to transform the world. They abandoned Aristotelian philosophy,
Christian theology and other traditional authorities and sought instead to subject the
human world to purely rational analysis. The center of this Enlightenment was France,
where prominent intellectuals were known as philosophes.

Enlightenment thought promoted freedom, equality and popular sovereignty, but
generally did not argue for equality for women.
23.
Examples of Enlightenment Philosophes: 5.3.I.D
Enlightenment thinkers also challenged existing notions of social relations, which
led to the expansion of rights as seen in expanded suffrage, the abolition of slavery and the end
of serfdom.

Voltaire epitomized the movement, championing individual freedoms such as free
speech and the free practice of religion. He caustically attacked the Roman Catholic
Church and the idea of monarchy.

Other Enlightenment thinkers were John Locke, who argued that a just government
derived its power from the consent of the governed (the roots of democracy) and that all
people were born with “natural rights” to life, liberty and property. He was a primary
inspiration for the American Revolution. Rousseau identified with simple working
people and resented the privileges of the elite. In The Social Contract, he argued that
members of a society were collectively the sovereign and that in the absence of royalty,
aristocrats and other privileged elites, the general will of the people would carry the day.
He was a primary inspiration for the French Revolution. Mary Wollstonecraft was the
most prominent to argue for the rights of women, penning an influential essay entitled A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She argued that women possessed all the rights
that Locke had granted to men, and she insisted on equal educational opportunities for
women.

The Enlightenment ideal of equality clearly suggested that the appropriate policy
was to abolish slavery, but that was not to come until the 19th century, as the
embracement of private property rights complicated matters because slaves were
considered the property of their owners.
24.
Jacobins and their relation to “the Revolution devours its children” by
Jacques Mallet du Pan: 5.3.IV
The global spread of Enlightenment thought and the increasing number of
rebellions stimulated new transnational ideologies and solidarities.

Jacques Mallet du Pan was a political journalist and royalist whose phrase “the
Revolution devours its children” refers with disdain to the radical phase of the French
Revolution – the Reign of Terror. The radical Jacobin party, led by Maximilien
Robespierre, dominated the Convention, a new legislative body elected by universal
manhood suffrage that abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic. It was
the Convention that began attacking “enemies of the state” from among the French
population itself, using the guillotine to execute some 40,000 people during the Reign of
Terror. Many of the victims were fellow radicals who fell out of favor with Robespierre
and the Jacobins … and in the end, even Robespierre fell victim to the guillotine.
Reasons the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain: 5.1
25.

Industrialization and global capitalism.
Reasons why industrialization began in Great Britain include that it had available to
it large coal deposits within easy reach of navigable rivers (which provided water
transport), commercial cities and pools of skilled laborers; the ability to exploit
American colonies, which provided items that could not be grown in Britain, such as
cotton, which sustained the very first industrialized sector – textiles; and support from
the British Parliament, which passed laws favorable to industry, such as prohibitions
against the importation of cotton cloth, and legislation paying for better roads, canals
and railroads.
26.
Advantages held by Europe over China in the development of industrialized
manufacturing: 5.1.I.A
A variety of factors led to the rise of industrial production: Europe’s location on the
Atlantic Ocean; the geographical distribution of coal, iron and timber; European demographic
changes; urbanization; improved agricultural productivity; legal protection of private property;
an abundance of rivers and canals; access to foreign resources; and the accumulation of capital.

In China, geography conspired against an important early shift from wood to coal,
because the main coal-producing regions of northwest China were too distant from the
Yangzi Delta, economically China’s most promising region. China’s isolationist posture
toward outsiders also meant that it could not exploit overseas colonies in the Americas,
which would have been more difficult in any event, given that the Pacific Ocean is much
more vast than the Atlantic. Whereas private property rights and greater personal
freedoms in Britain meant that someone with a bright idea to make money could go out
and achieve that, the best minds in China – the scholar-gentry – had no incentive to
“think outside the box” and innovate because their value was connected to the
perpetuation of Confucian traditions.
27.
Continuities in the timeframe 1750 to 1900 in Latin America: 5.1.II.A
The need for raw materials for the factories and increased food supplies for the
growing population in urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world
that specialized in mass producing single natural resources (such as cotton, rubber, palm oil,
sugar, wheat, meat, or guano) the profits from these raw materials were used to purchase
finished goods.

Latin America was continuously exploited by European colonial powers, which
extracted cash crops like sugar (especially from Portuguese Brazil and Caribbean
holdings of numerous European powers), cotton and tobacco (especially from North
America), and beef from Argentina. [The guano boom off the coast of Peru was shortlived and thus not a continuity across the timeframe.] So, Latin America served as the
raw materials supplier – and, somewhat less importantly, as an export market for
finished goods – in the international division of labor, where the West (western Europe
and all that it produced, including especially the U.S.) stood at the top of the industrial
class.
28.
Opium Trade: 5.1.II.C
The rapid increases in productivity caused by industrial production encouraged
industrialized states to seek out new consumer markets for their finished goods (such as British
and French attempts to “open up” the Chinese market during the 19th century).

Europeans long had to cope with the huge Chinese market that had little demand for
European products and so had to pay for items like Chinese silk, porcelain and tea with
silver bullion. But the British East India Company by the late 18th century hit upon an
alternative – the highly profitable but illegal drug opium. This they grew in the British
colony of India and shipped to China, where company officials exchanged it for Chinese
silver coin. By 1839, about 40,000 133-pound chests were entering China to satisfy the
habits of drug addicts. This, of course, would lead to the Opium War (1839-1842), in
which China would suffer a humiliating defeat and become subject to “unequal treaties,”
forced to open up to the West.
29.
Italian laborers were able to work the summer seasons in both Italy and
Argentina: 5.4.II.C
While many migrants permanently relocated, a significant number of temporary and
seasonal migrants returned to their home societies (such as Japanese agricultural workers in the
Pacific, Lebanese merchants in the Americas or Italians in Argentina).

About 4 million Italians sought opportunities in Argentina in the 1880s and 1890s,
many of them on coffee plantations where the abolition of slavery caused a severe labor
shortage. Some were known as golondrinas (“swallows”) because of their regular
migrations, traveling back and forth annually via steamship between Europe and South
America to take advantage of different growing seasons in the northern (Italy) and
southern (Argentina) hemispheres.
30.
Indentured Labor in Latin America: 5.4.III.B
Migrants often created ethnic enclaves (such as concentrations of Chinese or
Indians in different parts of the world), which helped transplant their culture into new
environments and facilitated the development of migrant support networks.

Indentured laborers who went from Asian lands to Peru, Brazil, Cuba and other
Caribbean destinations carried with them many of their native cultural practices. When
their numbers were relatively small, as in the case of Chinese migrants in Cuba, they
mostly intermarried and assimilated into the working classes without leaving much
foreign influence on the societies they joined. When they were relatively more numerous,
however, as in the case of Indian migrants to Trinidad and Tobago, they formed
distinctive communities in which they spoke their native languages, prepared foods from
their homelands, and observed their inherited cultural and social traditions.
31.
National Regulation of Asian immigration: 5.4.III.C
Receiving societies did not always embrace immigrants, as seen in the various degrees of
ethnic and racial prejudice and the ways states attempted to regulate the increased flow of
people across their borders (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act or the White Australia Policy).
 Concerns about growing numbers of migrants with different cultural and social
traditions eventually led to the exclusion of new arrivals from Asian lands: the U.S.
government ordered a complete halt to migration from China in 1882 and from Japan in
1907.
 The White Australian Policy intentionally favored immigration to Australia from certain
European countries, especially from Britain.
32.
New Technologies that facilitated European control of their colonies: 5.1.IV
There were major developments in transportation and communication, including
railroads, steamships, telegraphs and canals.

All of these technologies – railroads, steamships, telegraphs and canals – made
travel and communication between Europe and their colonial holdings around the world
much faster. The most obvious example of this comes from British India. In the 1830s it
took as long as two years for a British correspondent to receive a reply to a letter sent to
India by sailing ship. By the 1850s, steamships could make the round-trip between
London and Bombay in four months. Once the Suez Canal was built in 1869, the travel
time was reduced to less than two weeks. Around that time, submarine cables carrying
telegraph lines meant that messages could be sent from Britain to India and back in a
matter of hours. Imperial officials could now rapidly mobilize forces to deal with
troubles, and merchants could respond quickly to developments of economic and
commercial significance.
33.
Berlin Conference: 5.2.I.C
Many European states used both warfare and diplomacy to establish empires in
Africa (such as Britain in West Africa or Belgium in the Congo).

Tensions between European powers who were seeking African colonies led to the
Berlin Conference (1884-1885). Twelve European states, as well as the U.S. and the
Ottoman Empire, met to devise the ground rules for the colonization of Africa.
Representatives from Africa were not present. Half the nations represented, including
the U.S., had no colonial ambitions on the continent, but they had been invited to give
the proceedings a veneer of international approval. It was agreed that future claims on
African lands would require a colonial power to notify the others of its claims and then
follow up by “effective occupation” of the territory. This was commonly accomplished
either by getting a signed agreement from a local African ruler or by military conquest.
34.
The United Fruit Company: 5.2.I.E and 5.1.III.C
In other parts of the world, industrialized states practiced economic imperialism
(such as the British and French expanding their influence in China through the Opium Wars, or
the British and the United States investing heavily in Latin America).

The United Fruit Company owned 160,000 acres of land in Latin America by 1913,
and U.S. consumers were buying fully 90 percent of Nicaragua’s bananas. Not content
with such market control, and to combat negative attitudes about “Yankee imperialism,”
the United Fruit Company’s advertising executives in 1944 crafted “Chiquita Banana,” a
femal banana look-alike of singing and acting sensation Carmen Miranda.

When Guatemalan President Arbenz seized hundreds of thousands of acres of
uncultivated land owned by the United Fruit Company in 1953, he offered monetary
compensation to the company, based on the land’s declared value for tax payments. The
company and the U.S. government deemed that unacceptable – even communist
inspired – and President Eisenhower empowered the CIA to engineer the overthrow of
Arbenz’s government, which led to a military government that used torture and murder
against its opponents … but the United Fruit Company did get back its banana land.
35.
Japanese Reaction to imperialism: 5.2.II.A
The expansion of U.S. and European influence over Tokugawa Japan led to the
emergence of Meiji Japan.

When the American commander Matthew Perry steamed into Tokyo Bay in 1853
and demanded that Japan open up to trade, the Meiji Restoration (in which authority
was returned to the Japanese emperor from the Tokugawa military coalition) quickly
followed. Determined to gain parity with foreign industrial powers, a new government
was formed that recognized Japan had to look to the industrial lands of Europe and the
United States to obtain the knowledge and expertise to strengthen the country and win
revisions of the unequal treaties it had been forced to sign earlier. The Meiji government
sent students and officials abroad to study everything from technology to constitutions,
and it also hired foreign experts to facilitate economic development and the creation of
indigenous expertise. This resulted in the rapid industrialization of Japan and its
emergence as an imperial power by the early 1900s.
36.
Imperialism in Southwest Asia: 5.2.II.C
Anti-imperial resistance led to the contraction of the Ottoman Empire (such as the
establishment of independent states in the Balkans; semi-independence in Egypt, French and
Italian colonies in North Africa; or later British influence in Egypt).
37.
Anti-Colonial Rebellions: 5.3.III.D
Increasing questions about political authority and growing nationalism contributed
to anticolonial movements (such as the Indian Revolt of 1857, the Mahdist Revolt or the Boxer
Rebellion).

The Indian Revolt of 1857 came about after sepoys (Indian soldiers in the employ of
British colonial authorities) heard rumors that cartridges for newly issued rifles were
lubricated with a mixture of pig and cow fat. To load their rifles, sepoys had to bite off
the ends of the lubricated cartridges, thus making oral contact with a substance that was
offensive and insulting to both Muslims and Hindus. In response to the harsh treatment
meted out by the British against soldiers who refused to use these cartridges, a largescale mutiny broke out, which was joined by Indian princes and their followers, whose
territories had been annexed by the British, and people whose ways of life and sources of
income had been disrupted by British trade, missionary activities and misguided social
reforms. What had begun as a rebellion by Indian troops in the employ of the British
East India Company turned into a full-fledged war of independence against British rule.
The British put down the uprising, abolished the Mughal dynasty, and took direct control
over India from the British East India Company.

The Boxer Rebellion was a violent militia uprising in China in 1899 against “foreign
devils” and their influences. The Boxers (the foreign press called them this, given their
name, the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists) went on a rampage in northern
China, killing foreigners and Chinese Christians, as well as Chinese who had ties to
foreigners. In 1900, 140,000 Boxers besieged foreign embassies in Beijing … but a
heavily armed force of British, French, Russian, U.S., German and Japanese troops
quickly crushed the movement. Because the Empress Dowager Cixi had instigated the
Boxers’ attacks on foreigners, many Chinese regard the Qing dynasty as bankrupt. The
dynasty fell just three years after she died in 1908.
38.
Industrialization in Europe: 5.1.I.D
As the new methods of industrial production became more common in parts of
northwestern Europe, they spread to other parts of Europe and the rest of the world (such as the
United States, Russia or Japan).

Britain retained a monopoly on industrialization for about a half century, but by the
mid-19th century it had spread to Belgium, France, Germany and the U.S., where much of
the second wave of industrialization by the latter half of the 19th century was
headquartered (especially the new steel and oil industries). Aware of their head start,
British entrepreneurs and government officials forbade the export of machinery,
manufacturing techniques and skilled workers. European and North American
entrepreneurs did not hesitate to bribe or even kidnap British engineers, and they also
smuggled advanced machinery out of British isles.
Effect of Fossil Fuels in 19th Century: 5.1.I.B
39.
The development of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion
engine, made it possible to exploit vast new resources of energy stored in fossil fuels, specifically
coal and oil. The “fossil fuels” revolution greatly increased the energy available to human
societies.
 The effects of this revolution led to advances in transportation, including automobiles, as
well as a plethora of petroleum-based consumer products (everything from antiseptics
and asphalt to plastics, paints, pens and perfume … to tires, umbrellas, vitamin capsules
and water skis) and the new geopolitical importance of oil-rich lands in the Mideast. The
burning of fossil fuels is also believed to have harmed the environment.
Thomas Malthus’ Theory: 5.1
Industrialization and global capitalism
40.

41.
Thomas Malthus believed that the demand for food would exceed food production
due to unchecked population growth. He also believed that poverty and distress were
due to the growing population. Malthus argued that population increased at a geometric
ratio while food production increased at an arithmetic ratio, which would ultimately lead
to the population exceeding food growth resulting in a deadly famine (Malthusian
famine). He did not anticipate the 20th century’s huge advances in agricultural
innovations, such as the Green Revolution and the Haber-Bosch system for converting
nitrogen from the air into ammonia, which is the central ingredient in modern fertilizers.
Rudolf Clausius’ Proposal: 5.1.I.F
The changes in the mode of production also stimulated the professionalization of
sciences (such as medicine or engineering) and led to the increasing application of science to
new forms of technology.

Rudolf Clausius was a 19th century German physicist and mathematician who was a
central founder of the science of thermodynamics, which concerns heat and temperature
and their relation to energy and work. This illustrates the key concept, as his work
indirectly led to more efficient machinery.
42.
Religious Imperial Rebellions: 5.3.III.E
The spread of Enlightenment ideas and increasing discontent with imperial rule
propelled reformist and revolutionary movements , some of which were influenced by religious
ideas and millenarianism (such as the Taiping Rebellion, the Ghost Dance or the Xhosa CattleKilling Movement).

The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century was initiated in China by Hong
Xiuquan, a man who had a breakdown after failing his civil-service exams. He came to
believe that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ whose destiny was to reform
China and prepare it for the heavenly kingdom. Xiuquan’s followers grew to more than a
million, and as they clashed with the troubled Qing forces (and were eventually put
down) some 20-30 million Chinese were killed.

One notable – and final – clash between U.S. pioneers moving west and displaced
native peoples came about in 1890 from the Sioux adoption of the Ghost Dance, an
expression of religious beliefs that included a vision of an afterlife in which all white
peoples disappeared. Frightened and feeling threatened, whites wanted these religious
ceremonies suppressed. U.S. cavalry forces chased the Sioux who were fleeing to safety
in the South Dakota Badlands. At Wounded Knee Creek, a Sioux man accidentally shot
off a gun, and the cavalry overreacted badly, slaughtering more than 200 men, women
and children with machine guns.
43.
Effect of Trans-Continental Railroads: 5.1.IV
There were major developments in transportation and communication, including
railroads, steamships, telegraphs and canals. Transcontinental railroads in the U.S., Canada and
Russia served to unify those nations and serve as the backbone of commerce and industiral
development.
Railroads linking all U.S. regions integrated the national economy and were the

most important economic development of the later 19th century. The transcontinental
railroad was completed in 1869 (and transcontinental railroads were also established in
Canada and Russia). This provided cheap transportation for agricultural commodities,
manufactured goods and individual travelers. It also spurred development of other
industries, such as coal, wood, glass, rubber and steel. The largeness of the operations
contributed to the growth in size of industries and the sophistication of management
practices, and of course they required migrant laborers from around the world, including
China. Another effect was the adoption of “railroad time,” or the times zones we know
today (Eastern, Central, Mountain, Pacific). Until rapid and regular rail transportation
became available, communities across the country set their clocks by the sun, meaning it
could be 12 noon in Chicago while it was 11:50 a.m. in St. Louis and 12:18 p.m. in Detroit.
44.
Compare/contrast Industrialization in Great Britain: 5.1.V.C
In a small number of states, governments promoted their own state-sponsored visions of
industrialization (such as the economic reforms of Meiji Japan, the development of factories and
railroads in Tsarist Russia, China’s Self Strengthening Movement or Muhammad Ali’s
development of a cotton textile industry in Egypt).
 Whereas Britain was first to industrialize and correspondingly pioneered the process,
with individual entrepreneurs (looking to get rich) leading the way and the government
actively protecting and promoting industry (by prohibiting competing imports, for
example, or passing much legislation improving transportation … and even trying
initially to keep its industrial secrets from getting out), others eventually learned from
Britain’s experience while trying to industrialize for their own reasons.
 Refer to #35 above for Meiji Japan’s approach.
 In Russia, industrialization differed from western European industrialization in that the
motivation for development was political and military and the driving force was
government policy rather than entrepreneurial initiative.
 In China, the Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) was an attempt to industrialize
by blending Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial technology. It was
reform dictated by China’s relative weakness to the industrial west, which was exerting
its will inside China’s borders through unequal treaties and economic spheres of
influence. It failed because it didn’t bring enough real military and economic strength to
China.
 Muhammad Ali’s motivation for developing a cotton textile industry in Egypt in the early
19th century was to compete with Europe and raise Egyptian revenues, but ultimately its
purpose was to help the country strengthen militarily as he saw a modern Egypt
replacing the weakening influence of the Ottoman Empire across the Mideast.
45.
19th Century European Social Classes: 5.1. IV.A
New social classes, including the middle class and the proletariat, developed as members
of the aristocracy lost much of their privileged economic and political status.
 Industrialization led to new social classes: The captains of industry and enterprising
businesspeople formed a fabulously wealthy and powerful industrial class that came to
overshadow the military aristocracy and other traditionally privileged classes. Less
powerful than this new elite was the new middle class, consisting of small business
owners, factory managers, engineers, accountants, skilled employees of large
corporations and professionals such as physicians, attorneys and teachers. The masses of
laborers who toiled in factories and mines, meanwhile, constituted a new working class
(called the proletariat by Karl Marx). They were less skilled than artisans or craftsmen
from earlier times, but by the mid- to late-19th century they were beginning to grow
somewhat more prosperous (thanks in part to labor unions), becoming more vocal
politically and moving up into the expanding middle-class.

Accelerating Global Change & Realignments c. 1900 – Present
46.
19th and 20th Century Discoveries: 6.1.I.B
New scientific paradigms transformed human understanding of the world (such as
the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, the Big Bang theory or psychology).

Einstein’s theory of relativity, our understanding of the sub-atomic makeup of the
universe and its age going back more than 4 billion years, Darwin’s theory of evolution,
and the psychoanalytical ideas of Sigmund Freud (who suggested, for example, that
behind people’s thoughts existed a conflict between the conscious and unconscious
mind) … all contributed to what the Bentley textbook calls an “age of anxiety” developing
by the first third of the 20th century. People became increasingly unsettled that their
understanding of the world and even their own values were incomplete … and this was
captured in literature, film and other cultural manifestations.
47.
6.1.III
Diseases Associated with Changing Lifestyles of Humans in the Modern Era:
Diseases associated with poverty (such as malaria, tuberculosis or cholera) persisted,
while other diseases (such as the 1919 influenza pandemic, ebola or HIV/AIDS) emerged as new
epidemics and threats to human survival. In addition, changing lifestyles and increased
longevity led to higher incidence of certain diseases (such as diabetes, heart disease or
Alzheimer’s disease).
 The average lifespan increased substantially in the 20th century, due to medical
advancements, but that meant that diseases affecting the elderly (such as Alzheimer’s)
became much more common. The prosperity of the century, at least in the West, also
meant that diets became richer in fat and cholesterol (from the much greater
consumption of beef, for example) and “fast food” went from an American phenomenon
of the 1950s to a global industry by the end of the century … which contributed to greater
instances of heart disease, even as medical advancements were developing to better cope
with it.
48.
Nationalism in WWII: 6.2.IV.B
Military conflicts occurred on an unprecedented global scale. The varied sources of
global conflict in the first half of the century included: imperialist expansion by European
powers and Japan, competition for resources, ethnic conflict, great power rivalries between
Great Britain and Germany, nationalist ideologies, and the economic crisis engendered by the
Great Depression.


One of the consequences of World War I and subsequently a cause of World War II
was the rise of fascism (especially in Italy and Germany, with its Nazi variant of fascism).
This ideology featured a militant ultra-nationalism. When Hitler annexed Austria in
March 1938, he justified it as an attempt to reintegrate all Germans into a single
homeland. And then he used the same rationale to gain control of the Sudetenland, the
western portion of Czechoslovakia inhabited largely by ethnic Germans.
Nationalism – the belief in devotion and allegiance to one’s country – could also be
seen in the propaganda used during World War II. And it also explains in part the U.S.
policy of rounding up Japanese-Americans and sending them to internment camps after
the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
Collapse of 20th Century Empires: 6.2.I.A
49.
Europe dominated the global political order at the beginning of the 20th century, but
both land-based and transoceanic empires gave way to new forms of trans-regional political
organization by the century’s end. Older land-based empires (such as the Ottoman, Russian or
the Qing) collapsed due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as economic
hardship, political and social discontent, technological stagnation or military defeat).
 The Ottoman Empire, long the “sick man of Europe” due to technological stagnation and
the fact that world trade had long ago bypassed it with steamships and telegraph lines
making its geographic centrality no longer important in linking East to West, finally
collapsed and was broken apart following World War I. The modern state of Turkey was
created, and parts of it – like Syria and the newly created Iraq – were turned over to
League of Nations’ mandates to France and Britain, respectively.
 The Russian empire (prior to the emergence of a strengthening Soviet Union and its
post-World War II empire) also ended with World War I, with Czar Nicholas II and his
family being executed with the Russian Revolution, which led to the communist
Bolsheviks taking over and signing a treaty with Germany (which turned over to
Germany one-third of Russian land) to get out of the war.
 The troubled Qing dynasty finally collapsed in 1911, sending China into a prolonged
political struggle between communists and nationalists. The Boxer Rebellion, the
Taiping Rebellion, the failed Self-Strengthening Movement … all marked the closing
decades of this dynasty that first emerged in 1644.
Balfour Declaration (1917): 6.2.III.A
50.
The redrawing of old colonial boundaries led to population resettlements (such as the
India/Pakistan partition, the Zionist Jewish settlement of Palestine or the division of the Middle
East into mandatory states).
 The Balfour Declaration was introduce in 1917 by the British government and committed
itself to the support of a homeland the Jews in Palestine. The Balfour declaration gave a
boost to the Zionist dream of creating a Jewish state in Palestine, where Jews could
finally be safe from anti-Semitism and persecution in other lands. But the British now
had to balance allowing Jews to migrate back to Palestine while still protecting the fears
of those in possession of the land – the Palestinian Arabs. Despite the Balfour
Declaration coming during World War I, it wasn’t until after World War II – and the
Holocaust – that the Jewish state of Israel was finally created.
20th Century Propaganda: 6.2.IV
51.

World War I and World War II were the first “total wars.”
Governments used ideologies, including fascism, nationalism and communism, to
mobilize all of their state’s resources, including peoples, both in the home countries and


52.
the colonies of former colonies, for the purpose of waging war. Governments also used a
variety of strategies, including propaganda, political speeches, art, media and intensified
forms of nationalism, to mobilize these populations. The reach of modern mass media –
including radio and motion pictures – greatly contributed to the success of these
propaganda efforts.
To maintain the spirit of their home countries, many governments used propaganda
campaigns to censor bad news, counter threats to national unity, and restrict civil
liberties. Posters and scientific “studies” depicted the enemy as savages. The London
times in 1917 published a story that Germans converted human corpses into fertilizer
and food. Many stories such as those were produced on both sides to ensure the nations
war efforts did not fail.
Examples of propaganda from the Bentley text include the poster on p. 809,
promoting motherhood and featuring a nursing mother against a sun-splashed farm
background … and the famous “Rosie the Riveter” poster from the U.S. in 1942, which
encouraged women (“We Can Do It!”) to meet the challenges of World War II on the
home front.
Iranian Revolution: 6.2.V.B
Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing
economic, political and social orders (such as the Non-Aligned Movement, which presented an
alternative political bloc to the Cold War; the Tiananmen Square protesters that promoted
democracy in China; the Anti-Apartheid Movement; or participants in the global uprisings of
1968).

Radical Islamist influences penetrated Iran during the lengthy regime of Shah
Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, whom the CIA helped bring to power in 1953 as part of U.S.
calculations about the geopolitical importance of having a reliable ally leading Iran in the
early days of the Cold War. These radical Islamists were Shia Muslims who despised the
shah’s secular regime, and by the 1970s a coalition of forces inside Iran coalesced against
the shah and his repressive tactics, demonstrating the power of Islam as a means to stave
off secular foreign influences in the region. The revolution led to the capture of the U.S.
embassy in Tehran and 55 American hostages being held for more than a year. Iran
became an Islamic theocracy and soon fought a long war with Iraq, with whom the U.S.
sided.
53.
Effects of Insecticides: 6.1.III.A
This question will be based on a primary source.
54.
Refugee Populations in the 20th Century: 6.2.III.C
The proliferation of conflicts led to genocide (such as Armenia, the Holocaust,
Cambodia or Rwanda) and the displacement of peoples resulting in refugee populations (such as
the Palestinians or Darfurians).

World War I provided a pretext for a campaign of extermination against the
Ottoman Empire’s 2 million mostly Christian Armenians, the last major non-Muslim
ethnic group under Ottoman rule seeking autonomy and eventual independence. During
the war, and as the empire was crumbling, the Ottoman government branded these
Armenians as traitorous internal enemies, killing tens of thousands through forced
migrations, mass drowning, incineration or assaults with blunt instruments.

In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge, a force of communist guerrilla fighters, overthrew
the Cambodian government in 1975. Its brutal dictator Pol Pot, trying to rid the country
of all Western influences, slaughtered, starved or worked to death more than a million
Cambodians – one-third of the country’s population.



55.
In 2004 government-backed Arab militias slaughtered civilians and drove farmers
off their land in the western region of Sudan, called Darfur. The U.S. and other nations
sent humanitarian aid and the International Criminal Court charged Sudan’s president
with war crimes.
In the small central African nation of Rwanda, at least 800,000 Tutsis and moderate
Hutus were slaughtered after extremist Hutu leaders urged Rwandans to massacre their
Tutsi neighbors. This happened following a suspicious 1984 plane crash that killed the
presidents of Rwanda and neighboring Burundi.
The creation of Israel provoked a series of military conflicts between Israeli and
various Arab forces spanning five decades following World War II. As a result of these
wars, Israel substantially increased the size of its territory and hundreds of thousands of
Palestinians became refugees outside the state of Israel.
20th Century Changes in Warfare: 6.1.III.C
Improved military technology (such as tanks, airplanes or the atomic bomb) and
new tactics (such as trench warfare or firebombing) led to increased levels of wartime casualties
(such as Nanjing, Dresden or Hiroshima).

The Chinese city of Nanjing was the site of World War II’s unique new reality –
brutal warfare directed against civilians. The invading Japanese bombed cities to soften
Chinese resistance. Then over the course of two months, Japanese soldiers raped seven
thousand women, murdered hundreds of thousands of unarmed soldiers and civilians,
and burned one-third of the homes in Nanjing. Four hundred thousand Chinese lost
their lives as Japanese soldiers used them for bayonet practice and machine-gunned
them into open pits.

In February 1945 the British firebombed the German city of Dresden, literally
cooking 135,000 men, women and children in their bomb shelters. This became the
inspiration for Kurt Vonnegut’s famous novel Slaughterhouse Five.

Hiroshima, of course, was the site in early May 1945 of the first of two atomic
bombings of the U.S. against the Japanese, which led to the swift conclusion to World
War II.
56.
Indian Independence: 6.2.I.B
Some colonies negotiated their independence (such as India or the Gold Coast from
the British Empire).

The gradual trend toward Indian self-rule, in large measure a result of the tireless
campaign of Mohandas Gandhi and the Congress Party, was put on hold during World
War II, when British Prime Minister Winston Churchill ordered India to support the war
effort. Although Churchill vowed to never preside over the “liquidation of the British
empire,” he was voted out of office after the war as the economic devastation of the war
made it unrealistic for Britain to continue bearing the financial burden of empire in
India.
57.
Separation of South Asia: 6.2.II.B
Regional, religious and ethnic movements (such as that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
the Quebecois separatist movement or the Biafra secessionist movement) challenged both
colonial rule and inherited imperial boundaries.

The longstanding conflict in India between the majority Hindus and the minority
Muslims led to the partition of South Asia as the region gained its independence from
the British after World War II. Led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the Muslim League, the
new state of Pakistan was created northwest of India, and severe violence broke out in
mid-1948 as 10 million refugees tried to make their way to one side or the other of the
border. As many as 1 million died as a result.
58.
Military-industrial Complex: 6.2.V.C
Militaries and militarized states often responded to the proliferation of conflicts in
ways that further intensified conflict (such as the promotion of military dictatorship in Chile,
Spain and Uganda; the United States’ promotion of a New World Order after the Cold War; or
the buildup of the “military-industrial complex” and arms trading).

The so-called “military-industrial complex” refers to the interconnections that can
emerge among the government, its armed forces and the for-profit defense contractors
who build the ships and planes and missiles that fuel war. President Eisenhower warned
against this in his farewell speech in 1961: “In the councils of government, we must guard
against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the
military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power
exists, and will persist. We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our
liberties or democratic processes.”
59.
Command Economies: 6.3.I.A
New international organizations (such as the League of Nations or the United
Nations) formed to maintain world peace and to facilitate international cooperation.

This key concept has nothing to do with command economies (which were a feature
of communist regimes like the Soviet Union, in which economic decisions are not made
as a result of the free market but rather by central authorities of the state, which also
owns the factors of production). But I’m told this question has to do with communism …
so, the only thing I can observe about communism and international organizations out to
maintain world peace is that the United Nations, formed in 1945, features a Security
Council that has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and
security. It has 15 member nations with a vote, and all member nations of the U.N. are
obligated to comply with the council’s decisions. But the composition of the Security
Council is made up of 10 member nations that rotate in and out on two-year terms …
along with five permanent members of the council: the U.S., Britain, France, China and
the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union). The five permanent members of the
council can veto any action … and critics of the U.N. over the years have pointed out that
the communist states on the Security Council (especially during the Cold War) have
repeatedly blocked efforts to sanction rogue nations. For example, top U.N. officials want
to refer the ongoing crisis in Syria to the International Criminal Court for prosecution of
war crimes, but both Russia and China have vetoed that resolution.
60.
Free Market Economic Policies: 6.3.I.D
Regional trade agreements (such as the European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN or
Mercosur) created regional trading blocs designed to promote the movement of capital and
goods across national borders.

A key strategy of these regional trade agreements has been the dismantling of tariffs
(taxes on imported goods) and other barriers that inhibit international trade. As one
example, efforts have been made to streamline the differing transportation regulations in
place on either side of the U.S. border with Mexico (NAFTA, or the North American Free
Trade Agreement, was signed by the U.S., Canada and Mexico in 1994). Common
currencies, such as the adoption of the Euro among many members of the European
Union, has been another strategy of regional trade agreements.
61.
Economic and Political Reforms: 6.3.II.B
Increased interactions among diverse peoples sometimes led to the formation of
new cultural identities (such as negritude) and exclusionary reactions (such as xenophobia, race
riots or citizenship restrictions).

Drawing from the pan-African movements that emerged in the United States and
the Caribbean, African intellectuals, especially in French-controlled west Africa,
established a movement to promote Negritude (“Blackness”). Reviving Africa’s great
traditions and cultures, poets and writers expressed a widely shared pride in Africa. This
coincided with nationalist calls for independence for sub-Saharan Africa before, during
and after World War II.

In the U.S., concerns about the growing numbers of migrants with different cultural
and social traditions led to a xenophobic backlash. The U.S. government put a halt to
migration from China in 1882 and from Japan in 1907.
62.
International Monetary Fund and World Bank Criticism: 6.3.II.B
Increased interactions among diverse peoples sometimes led to the formation of
new cultural identities (such as negritude) and exclusionary reactions (such as xenophobia, race
riots or citizenship restrictions).

Critics of the IMF and World Bank claimed that the existing global financial
structure helped developed nations exploit less-developed nations, widening the wealth
gap between the two.
63.
Successes of League of Nations and United Nations: 6.3.II.A
The notion of human rights gained traction throughout the world (such as the U.N.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, women’s rights or the end of the White Australia
Policy).

Although the critics of the U.N. have been many, it has succeeded in some areas –
unlike the League of Nations, which proved utterly incapable of preventing World War
II. The U.N.’s promotion of human rights is one example, as is its successes sending
peace-keeping troops into troubled parts of the globe.

The U.N.’s Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by its General Assembly in
1948 on the heels of the Holocaust and amidst conflicts over continued colonialism and
its inherent inequalities. It was a charter setting out the first global and solemn
commitment to the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings, regardless of
color, creed or origin. It helped to inspire the constitutions of many newly independent
and newly democratic states.
64.
NAFTA and ASEAN: 6.3.I.D
Regional trade agreements (such as the European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN or
Mercosur) created regional trading blocs designed to promote the movement of capital and
goods across national borders.

NAFTA stands for the North American Free Trade Agreement, and ASEAN stands
for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
65.
Apartheid: 6.2.V.B
Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing
economic, political and social orders (such as the Non-Aligned Movement, which presented an
alternative political bloc to the Cold War; the Tiananmen Square protesters that promoted
democracy in China; the Anti-Apartheid Movement; or participants in the global uprisings of
1968).

66.
Dispossessed peoples in South Africa all found in apartheid – the nation’s rigid
system of racial segregation – an impetus for resistance. The African National Congress
(ANC), formed in 1912, gained new young leaders such as Nelson Mandela, who inspired
direct action campaigns to protest apartheid. In 1955, the ANC published its Freedom
Charter, which proclaimed the ideal of multiracial democratic rule. Because its goals
directly challenged white rule, the ANC and all black activists in South Africa faced
severe repression. The government declared all its opponents communists and escalated
its actions against black activists. After Mandela was captured in 1963 with other
members of the ANC’s military unit, he was sentenced to life in prison … but also became
a symbol of the oppressive white rule in South Africa. Protests inside and outside South
Africa persisted through the 1970s and 1980s until the apartheid system was finally
dismantled and Mandela was freed from prison in 1990 (becoming, in 1994, South
Africa’s first black president).
Sub-Saharan Diseases: 6.1.III.A
Diseases associated with poverty (such as malaria, tuberculosis or cholera)
persisted, while other diseases (such as the 1919 influenza pandemic, ebola or HIV/AIDS)
emerged as new epidemics and threats to human survival. In addition, changing lifestyles and
increased longevity led to higher incidence of certain diseases (such as diabetes, heart disease or
Alzheimer’s disease).
67.
Domino Effect: 6.2.IV.D
The Cold War produced new military alliances, including NATO and the Warsaw
Pact, and promoted proxy wars in Latin America, Africa and Asia.

The “domino theory” was first asserted by President Eisenhower in 1954. It justified
worldwide U.S. military intervention on the assumption that if one country became
communist, neighboring ones would collapse to communism the way a row of dominoes
falls sequentially until none remains standing.
68.
Compare/Contrast British and French/Portuguese Colonies: 6.2.I.B
Some colonies negotiated their independence (such as India or the Gold Coast from
the British Empire).

The British Gold Coast colony became the first sub-Saharan country in Africa to
negotiate its independence (then taking on the name Ghana) in 1956. Generally, Britain
was not as aggressive in maintaining its colonies after World War II as was France and
Portugal. Because of Britain’s preferred colonial approach of indirect rule, political elites
in their newly independent colonies tended to already have political experience. Where
there were substantial white settler populations, however, such as Kenya, violent anticolonial rebellions took place.

France’s determination to keep its African colonies is best exemplified by Algeria,
where two million French has settled by the mid-1940s. From the mid-1950s until 1962,
France committed as many as half a million soldiers to a war with Algeria’s National
Liberation Front, which killed hundreds of thousands of Algerians. The country
nevertheless won its independence through violence in 1962.

Portugal’s African colonies – Angola and Mozambique – did not gain independence
until 1975.
69.
Competitive Nation-States: 6.2.II.C
Transnational movements (such as communism, Pan-Arabism or Pan-Africanism)
sought to unite people across national boundaries.

70.
The leader of pan-Arab nationalism was Gamal Abdel Nasser, president of Egypt
from 1954 to 1970. Pan-Arab cooperation was sometimes tenuous, as individual nations
sought their own advantages, especially during the Cold War. Nasser was a proponent of
neutralism during the Cold War, believing that its power politics was a new form of
imperialism. So he condemned Turkey, Iraq and Iran when they joined in the U.S.- and
British-inspired alliance known as the Baghdad Pact.
Anti-war Protest: 6.2.V.A
Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing
economic, political and social orders (such as the Non-Aligned Movement, which presented an
alternative political bloc to the Cold War; the Tiananmen Square protesters that promoted
democracy in China; the Anti-Apartheid Movement; or participants in the global uprisings of
1968).

In 1968, the year John Lennon of the Beatles sang “Revolution,” a wave of student
protests spread across the U.S., Europe and Japan. These were largely the sons and
daughters of the privileged classes, spouting radical Left ideas about all kinds of things
and staging sit-ins and even taking control of college campuses. They protested pretty
much everything the “Establishment” stood for, but one major element was calling for an
end to the Vietnam War (“Make Love, Not War”).