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Muslim Empires “Gunpowder Empires” • Absolutist monarchies took advantage of the power vacuum left by the end of the Mongol Empire • Used firearms (cannons, rifles) to expand their empires • Centralized governments – Manufactured or traded for firearms – Trained and organized an army with firearms • Supported the ideal of the ghazi – Nomadic warrior ethic mixed with Muslim holy fighter Early Modern Firearms Ottoman Empire (1299-1923) • Founded by Osman I (r. 1299-1326) after breaking off from Seljuk Turks • Expanded throughout Anatolia after the Mongols invaded • Sultan: ruler of the empire – Claimed to be the caliph as well • Practiced and spread Sunni Islam • Large bureaucracy to administer empire – Controlled by vizier • Cavalry developed into warrior aristocracy Ottoman Expansion • Expanded into the Balkans and Middle East – Later expanded into Egypt, North Africa • Economy thrived from control of trade routes Fall of Constantinople (1453) • Ottomans laid siege for several months – Looted city for 3 days – Sold up to 30,000 citizens into slavery – Renamed Istanbul • Accomplished by Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481) • Claimed to be the successors of the Roman Empire Topkapi Palace • Built by Mehmed II from 1459-1465 • Royal residence of the Ottoman sultans Janissaries • Gathered through the devsirme system – Christian boys ages 8-20 from Anatolia and the Balkans were taken from their families as tribute – Raised by Turkish families – Learned Turkish language, customs, converted to Islam Janissaries • Trained as soldiers, engineers, architects, physicians, scientists • Became elite military and intellectual class loyal to the sultan • Later they became politically powerful – Ineffective as soldiers by the 1700s – Started to regularly revolt and lead coups against the sultan Ottoman Diversity and Society • Millet system: different ethnicities operated under their own legal codes – Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Jewish, Armenian – Still owed allegiance to the sultan • Nobility oversaw peasants working on their rural estates • Thriving merchant and artisan class maintained prosperous trade – Bazaar: marketplace Ottoman Trade • Traded and taxed goods along the Silk Roads – Controlled Mediterranean gold and slave trade • Produced rugs, tiles, pottery • Grew tobacco and cotton imported from the Americas • Bought coffee from Yemen, spices from the East Indies Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) • Accomplished sailor, poet • Responsible for Ottoman Golden Age – Developed free schools at mosques for Muslim boys – Funded architectural and artistic expression • Ottomans advanced into Europe as far as Vienna • Created strong law codes – Protected Jews and Christians as dhimmis Suleimaniye Mosque Ottoman Decline • Defeated by VenetianSpanish fleet at Lepanto in 1571 • Sultans became weak because they were not trained to rule while regional rulers became corrupt – Eunuchs and the harem manipulated the sultan • Economy weakened as Europeans found new trade routes and blocked Ottoman expansion – Lost maritime trade power in Indian Ocean to the Portuguese Wahhabism • Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-92) – Muslim scholar and preacher • Called for purification of Sunni Islam – Wanted to end worship of saints, visiting tombs • Advocated forceful adherence to Sharia law • Supported by royal House of ibn Saud – Formed first Saudi state • Viewed Christians and Jews as devil-worshippers Safavid Empire (1501-1736) Safavid Empire (1501-1736) • Safavids were mix of Persian and Turkish – Originally followed Sufism – Claimed to be descendants of Mohammad, through Ali • Founded by Ismail I (r. 1501-1524) – Proclaimed as Shah: emperor/king • Established Shi’a Islam as official religion of empire • Qizilbash: Turkic warriors who were source of Safavid military power Battle of Chaldiran (1514) • Ismail was defeated by Ottoman firearm superiority – Ended Safavid attempts at westward expansion and spread of Shi’a Islam Shah Abbas I (r. 1588-1629) • Traded silk with England and the Netherlands • Constructed better roads and rest stops for caravans – Taxed trade along the Silk Roads • Reformed the army and introduced more firearms • Limited power of qizilbash – Incorporated enslaved Russians and Persians into bureaucracy and army • Became paranoid and blinded or killed his sons Shirley Brothers • Robert and Anthony Shirley sent from England to form antiOttoman alliance in 1598 – Helped to train Safavid army and casted cannons for them – Developed trade relations between England and Safavids Isfahan • Shah Abbas I moved capital to Isfahan in 1598 – Isfahan nesf-é jahan (“Isfahan is half the world”) Naqsh-e-Jahan Square Shah Mosque Safavid Decline • Declined as Ottomans, Russians, and Mughals all begin to invade – Weak rulers could not hold empire together – Importance of Silk Roads declined – British and Dutch cut them out of Indian Ocean trade • Afghani tribes besieged and captured Isfahan in 1722 Mughal Empire (1526-1857) • Babur (r. 1526-1530): Turkic and Mongol descent – From both Timur and Chinggis Khan – Conquered northern Indian Hindu princes by using firearms – Brought Persian influence into India Women in Mughal India • Sati: Hindu practice of widow throwing herself on husband’s funeral pyre – Wives wanted to preserve their honor • Purdah: seclusion of women – Kept inside their homes – When outside or around men, women must stay fully covered Akbar (r. 1556-1605) • Muslim, but religiously tolerant – Married Hindu princesses • Incorporated Hindus into bureaucracy, built temples, removed jizya • Created Din-i-Ilahi to try to unite Hindus and Muslims • Built schools and encouraged art, architecture, literature • Discouraged child marriages and sati • Encouraged merchants to set aside special market days for women Mughal Society and Economy • Zamindars: government officials who collected taxes and were often paid with land • Aristocracy developed from the military – Open to Muslims and all castes of Hindus • Majority of population was rural, poor, and Hindu • Extensive trade with Swahili Coast, China, and Europe – High demand for textiles made from Indian cotton in Europe, pepper, tropical fruits, precious stones Indian Cotton Taj Mahal • Built from 1632-53 by Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658) – Tomb for his third wife Red Fort • Built by Shah Jahan in Delhi in 1648 as Mughal royal residence Sikhism • Started by Guru Nanak in the early 1500s – Guru: teacher • Monotheistic, believe in reincarnation and search for oneness with God • Homeland in the Punjab • Holy text: Guru Granth Sahib Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) • Finished in 1604 • All faiths are welcome • Free meal served to 100,000 every day • Pilgrimage destination: holiest site for Sikhs – Contains the Guru Granth Sahib Christianity in India • Francis Xavier (1506-1552): converted lower castes • Robert di Nobili (1577-1656): focused on highcaste Hindus – Adopted their customs – Vegetarianism, dress, shaved head • Conversion attempts did not experience great success – Caste system prohibited communal worship – Higher castes would not interact with lower castes Aurangzeb and Mughal Decline • Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) – Devout Muslim • Reversed many of Akbar’s religiously tolerant policies – Outlawed sati, reintroduced jizya • Military campaigns expanded empire but were too expensive • Opened trade relations with British East India Company • Regional rulers took control, minority groups rebelled – Weakened India became target for the British