Download A or B - Magister Ekonomi Pertanian ULM

Pedoman Umum
Penulisan Abstract
(Scientific Writing)
Agung Nugroho
Magister Ekonomi Pertanian, Faperta ULM
6 Mei 2017
General rules
1. Verb tense
In scientific writing, three tenses are normally used:
1) present tense
2)past tense
3) present perfect tense
The use of present or past forms of verbs has a very
special meaning in scientific papers.
1) Use present tense when a fact has been
published.
Streptomycin stops the growth of
tuberculosis (Smith, 1980).
Several reports describe similar
(Jones et al. 2005).
Larger cod females produce larger
eggs (Kjesbu, 1989).
findings
2) Use the past tense for unpublished results.
Fish larvae grew best at 21oC.
But if you are citing the results of a previous
study, use present tense:
Fish larvae grow best at 21oC (Smith, 1978).
3) Use present perfect tense for repeated events
Nesting behavior has been studied under
many environmental conditions.
These drugs have been shown to produce
significant elevations in blood pressure.
4) Use present tense to refer readers to your
figures and tables
Figure 1 shows that …
Table 1 shows that …
Summary
1) Established knowledge – present tense
2) Results of your paper –
past tense
3) Presentation –
present tense
This means that you will use both past and present
tense in your paper
1) Abstract –
past tense
2) Introduction –
present tense
3) Methods –
past tense
4) Results –
past tense
5) Discussion –
both past and present
2. Agreement of subject and verb.
A.The number of the verb must agree with the
number of the subject.
: An evaluation of the
experimental results, as well as the
clinical findings, are described.
INCORRECT
CORRECT
:
An evaluation of the
experimental results, as well as the
clinical findings, is described.
2) Agreement of subject and verb.
B. Irregular plurals.
A common mistake is to use a singular verb with
data, formulae and radii, which are plural
nouns.
INCORRECT
CORRECT
: This data is significant.
: These data are significant.
3) Voice
English has two voices:
• active
• passive
Active: Salmon eat copepods.
Passive: Copepods are eaten by salmon.
#1: Salmon eat copepods.
#2: Copepods are eaten by salmon.
Do they mean the same thing?
The facts are the same, but the sentences
tell us two different things:
#1 tells us something about salmon
#2 tells us something about copepods
1. Use passive voice to avoid mentioning the performer
of the action when the performer is already known
(e.g., in the Methods section)
ACTIVE: We collected samples in the Gulf of
Thailand. We removed scales on board the ship. We
conducted age analysis of these samples in Bangkok.
PASSIVE: Samples were collected in the Gulf of
Thailand. Scales were removed on board the ship. Age
analysis of these samples was conducted in Bangkok.
2. Use passive voice if it will help you move smoothly
from one sentence to the next.
Each sentence should begin with information
familiar to your reader, and new and complex
information should come last.
Short, simple, familiar
Long, complex, new
OLD INFORMATION
NEW INFORMATION
.
ADVICE:
1) Look at the structure of the sentence to
decide whether active or passive voice is
appropriate.
2) Use the active voice unless you have a
good reason to use the passive.
Numbers
Use figures for numbers 10 and above
Use words for numbers below 10 (one, two, ... nine)
examples: We towed 13 nets through the water.
We sampled at 22 stations.
We conducted three experiments.
We collected nine samples.
Exceptions
1) Do not begin a sentence with a figure.
:
13 students went to the lecture.
WRONG
CORRECT
:
Thirteen students went to the lecture.
:
A total of 13 students went to the lecture.
CORRECT
WRONG
:
48 petri dishes were used.
CORRECT
:
Forty-eight petri dishes were used.
CORRECT
:
A total of 48 petri dishes were used.
Exceptions
2) Use figures whenever numbers are followed by units of
measure.
:
I added three ml of distilled water.
WRONG
CORRECT
:
I added 3 ml of distilled water.
3) When several numbers appear in the same sentence,
express them all the same way.
:
WRONG
We conducted four experiments in May,
five in June and 11 in July.
:
We conducted 4 experiments in May, 5 in
June and 11 in July.
CORRECT
Generally, figures are used when you have three or
more numbers in a series, even if each of the numbers
is below 10.
:
The analysis revealed 5 cases of
malaria, 7 cases of yellow fever, and
1 case of leprosy.
CORRECT
Definite and indefinite articles.
This is probably one of the most difficult points of the
English language for most foreigners.
Luckily, it does not usually cause serious confusion if
you get it wrong.
There are three articles in English:
• a
indefinite articles
• an
• the
definite article
Using definite and indefinite articles is one of the
hardest things for speakers of other languages to
master, because the usage is often entirely arbitrary.
Example: I am in town.
I am in the city.
Also, British and American usage sometimes differs:
Britain - She is in hospital.
USA She is in the hospital.
Usually you have to go with what sounds right, which
can be frustrating for a learner.
There are no simple rules for using articles, but here are
a few guidelines.
I. Indefinite articles - a and an
A and an are indefinite articles. They are used before
nouns that introduce something or someone you have not
mentioned before:
"We observed an albatross near the islands."
"A dolphin was caught on the longline."
A and an are also used when talking about your profession:
"I am a graduate student."
"He is an oceanographer."
II. Definite article – the
Use the when you have already mentioned the thing you
are writing about.
"We caught an albatross and a shearwater. The
albatross was a male, and the shearwater was a
female."
II. Definite article – the
Use the to talk about geographical points on the globe:
the North Pole, the equator
Use the to talk about rivers, oceans and seas
the Chao Phraya River, the Pacific Ocean
Use the before certain nouns when we know there is only
one of a particular thing.
the sun, the world, the earth
III. No article
We usually use no article to talk about things in general
- the does not mean “all”.
"Squids are delicious." = (All squids are delicious.)
"The squids are delicious." = (Not all squids are
delicious, just the ones I am writing about.)
“Fishes are vertebrates.” = (All fishes are vertebrates.)
"The fishes fed on copepods." = (Not all fishes fed on
copepods, just the ones I am writing about.)
III. No article
Do not use an article before the names of countries except where
they indicate multiple areas or contain the words state(s) kingdom,
republic, or union.
No article: Thailand
Japan
Use the:
the Kingdom of Thailand
the United Kingdom
the United States of America
the Netherlands
the Philippines
The most important thing when writing:
To be clear
The simplest writing style is usually the best.
The first step towards being clear:
Be brief
Sentence Structure
Two tips to help make your sentences
clearer:
1)The verb should follow the subject as
soon as possible.
Subject – Verb – Object
1. The hawksbill turtle, after it lays eggs at
the Similan Islands, returns to the sea.
2. The hawksbill turtle returns to the sea
after it lays eggs at the Similan Islands.
1. Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
2. Scientists, using satellite tags, track sea turtles.
3. Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.
Subject - Verb
1. The hawksbill turtle, after it lays eggs at
the Similan Islands, returns to the sea.
2. The hawksbill turtle returns to the sea
after it lays eggs at the Similan Islands.
#2 is better than #1.
Subject
Verb
Object
1. Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
2. Scientists, using satellite tags, track sea turtles.
3. Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.
#1 and #3 are better than #2.
But what is the difference between #1 and #3?
Sentence Structure – Tip #2
Paragraph A:
The Bay of Bangkok was my study area. Seven species of
fishes were collected in the bay. Three types of zooplankton
were fed on by the fishes. Copepods were the most abundant
zooplankton prey.
Paragraph B:
My study area was the Bay of Bangkok . In the bay, I collected
seven species of fishes. The fishes fed on three types of
zooplankton. The most abundant zooplankton prey were
copepods.
Sentence Structure Tip #2
Readers naturally emphasize the material that
arrives at the end of a sentence.
We refer to this location as the “stress position”.
Thus, the writer should put new information at
the end of the sentence.
Sentence Structure Tip #2
1. Begin sentences with information familiar to your
readers.
2. End sentences with new/complicated information
you want the reader to emphasize.
Short, simple, familiar
Long, complex, new
OLD INFORMATION
NEW INFORMATION
.
Put new information at the end.
Where is the new information in each sentence?
PARAGRAPH A
The Bay of Bangkok was my study area.
Seven species of fishes were collected in the bay.
Three types of zooplankton were fed on by the fishes.
Copepods were the most abundant zooplankton prey.
Where is the new information in each sentence?
PARAGRAPH A
The Bay of Bangkok was my study area.
Seven species of fishes were collected in the lake.
Three types of zooplankton were fed on by the fishes.
Copepods were the most abundant zooplankton prey.
PARAGRAPH B
My study area was the Bay of Bangkok .
In the bay, we collected seven species of fishes.
The fishes fed on three types of zooplankton.
The most abundant zooplankton prey were copepods.
PARAGRAPH B
My study area was the Bay of Bangkok .
In the bay, we collected seven species of fishes.
The fishes fed on three types of zooplankton.
The most abundant zooplankton prey were copepods.
“Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.”
“Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.”
Which is better?
Example 1:
Scientists use electronic tags to study animal
migration. One type of tag now used is called a
“satellite tag”. A or B.
A. Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.
?
Example 1:
Scientists use electronic tags to study animal
migration. One type of tag now used is called a
“satellite tag”. A or B.
A. Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.
Example 1: Where is the new information?
Scientists use electronic tags to study animal migration.
One type of tag now used is called an “satellite tag”.
A. Scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, scientists track sea turtles.
Example 2:
Some sea turtles migrate long distances. These
migrations are being tracked by scientists around the
world. A or B.
A. The scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, the scientists track sea turtles.
?
Example 2:
Some sea turtles migrate long distances. These
migrations are being tracked by scientists around the
world. A or B.
A. The scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, the scientists track sea turtles.
Example 2: Where is the new information?
Some sea turtles migrate long distances.
These migrations are being tracked by scientists around
the world.
A. The scientists track sea turtles using satellite tags.
B. Using satellite tags, the scientists track sea turtles.
Paragraphs
• The paragraph is an essential way of organizing
ideas in English.
• If a paper is not well structured with paragraphs,
it can be very hard for the reader to follow the flow
of ideas.
Paragraph comprises two parts:
Issue
+
Discussion
The Issue is analogous to the topic.
• It is usually 1-3 sentences long.
The Discussion explains or supports what the
writer stated in the issue.
Readers will feel that a paragraph is coherent if they
can read a sentence that specifically articulates its
point.
• topic sentence
• In scientific writing, this sentence should come
at the beginning of the paragraph
• usually at the end of the Issue
Here is a paragraph about fisheries management
(Pikitch et al., 2004). Note how the topic sentence
summarizes the paragraph:
Fisheries management to date has often been ineffective; it
focuses on maximizing the catch of a single target species and
often ignores habitat, predators, and prey of the target species and
other ecosystem components and interactions. The indirect social
and economic costs of the focus on single species can be
substantial. For example, over 90% of the annual mortality of
white marlin, a species petitioned for listing under the U.S.
Endangered Species Act, occurs through incidental catch in
swordfish and tuna longline fisheries. This threatens a recreational
fishing industry worth up to U.S.$2 billion annually.
How long should a paragraph be?
• it can be as short as one sentence or as long
as it has to be.
Just remember that each paragraph should
contain only one developed idea.
One paragraph = One idea/topic.
When you change topics, start a new paragraph.
Scientific writing differs from other types of writing in
two main ways:
1) its main purpose is to inform,
so it should be clear and simple
2) organization
Scientific writing is very organized:
1) Introduction
2) Methods
IMRAD
3) Results and
4) Discussion