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Chapter 19: Early Latin America * Emperor of Aztecs: Moctezuma * Latin America was drawn into new world economy * Creation of plantations worked by coerced laborers Spaniards and Portuguese: From Reconquest to Conquest * Iberian Peninsula: religious conflict, Muslim vs. Christian * Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile: marriage and unification of kingdoms and eliminate religious diversity * Jews and Muslims were kicked out of Castile * 1492: End of Granada War- sponsorship of Christopher Columbus Iberian Society and Tradition * Urban societies * Encomiendas: large estates and grants of American Indian laborers in Latin America (grant of indigenous people to individual Spaniards in a type of serfdom) The Chronology of Conquest * Conquest: 1492-1570: main lines of administration and economy were set out * 1570-1700: phase of consolidation and maturity with colonial institutions taking their definite form * 18th century: period of reform and reorganization The Caribbean Crucible * Caribbean model for Spain in the rest of the Americas * Caribbean was the home of Taino people * Encomendero: the holder of an encomienda: able to use the people as workers or to tax them. * Priests came over with the conquistadors * By 1510's immigration increased and included Spanish women and African slaves: shift from an area of conquest to one of settlement * Spanish accused people in Antilles with cannibalism: thus always subject to enslavement. * Bartolome de Las Casas (1484-1566): Dominincan friar: conquistador turned priest. The Paths of Conquest * Spanish expeditions: between 50 to 500 men provided the spearhead of conquest. * Two prong efforts: Mexico and South America * Hernan Cortes: led 600 men in 1519 against the Aztecs (aided by traditional enemies of the Aztecs), defeated Moctezuma II, conquered Tenochtitlan and renamed Mexico City * 1532: Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Incas in Peru * Francisco Vazquez de Coronado: 1540-1542: searched for mythical cities of gold, went into SW United States ( to Kansas). The Conquerors * Many of the conquistadors were looking to improve their lives/ status * Advantages of Spanish: technology: horses, firearms, and steel weapons Conquest and Morality * argument that natives were not fully human, and some peoples were "born to serve" * Las Casas vs. Sepulveda The Destruction and Transformation of American Indian Societies * Spanish created institutions such as the encomienda and later the mita to tax the native population or make them work. * Central Mexico: 25 million in 1519 to 2 million in 1580 * Smallpox, influenza, and measles wreaked havoc on the Native American population * Demographic collapse made maintaining traditional social and economic structures very difficult. * Cattle, Sheep, and Horses increased in the Americas Exploitation of the Indians * Enslavement of Indians, except those taken in war, was prohibited by the mid-16th c. in most of Spanish America * Encomiendas: grants of land and the use of Indians and servants, or to tax them. Declined by 1620's * colonial government increasingly extracted labor and taxes from native peoples * Mita: forced laborers for state projects: road building, mining, agriculture * Growth of wage-labor systems away from villages Colonial Economies and Governments * Agriculture and mining were the basis of the Spanish colonial economy. * 80% agricultural * Precious metals: fit Latin America into the developing world economy: SILVER The Silver Heart of Empire * Potosi: upper Peru was largest mine of all: 160,000 people * American Indian slaves and encomienda systems were gradually replaced by labor drafts * Use of amalgamation with mercury to extract the silver form the ore-bearing rock * Spanish law: all subsoil rights belonged to the crown, mine and processing plants were owned by individuals Haciendas and Villages * Haciendas: rural estates Industry and Commerce * Spain allowed only Spaniards to trade with America and imposed tight restrictions. Industry and Commerce * Consulado= Merchant guild * Galleons= large, heavily armed ships * Wealth of Spain depended more on the taxes levied on its own population than it did on the exploitation of its native American subjects. Ruling an Empire: State and Church * Papal grant: awarded the West Indies to Castile in return for its services in bringing those lands and peoples into the Christian community * Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): between Castile and Portugal: clarified the spheres of influence and right of possession of the two kingdoms by drawing a hypothetical line: Portugal to east of line, and Spain to west of line * Letrados: university-trained lawyers from Spain * Viceroyalties in 16th c.: Mexico City and Lima: led by Viceroys: further subdivided into 10 judicial divisions controlled by superior courts, audiencias * Catholic church: widespread conversion of the Native Americans * Much of intellectual life was organized around religion * Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz (1651-1695): author, poet, musician, social thinker, nun Brazil: The First Plantation Colony * Portuguese * Sugar plantations with Native American, then African labor * 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral: explorer who landed briefly in Brazil * 1549: Portuguese king sent a governor general to create a royal capital at Salvador: first Jesuit missionaries as well Sugar and Slavery * Brazil= world's leading sugar producer * Sugar production: large amounts of capital for machinery and large quantities of labor for the backbreaking work. * White planter families became an aristocracy linked by marriage to resident merchants and to the few Portuguese bureaucrats and officials, and they dominated local institutions. Brazil's Age of Gold * Competition for sugar trade by Dutch, French, and English, against Brazil * 1695: discovery of gold in the mountainous interior: called Minas Gerais * Brazil became the greatest source of Gold in the Western World Multiracial Societies * Hierarchies of color, status, and occupation * Master/ servant, Christian/ "pagan" The Society of Castas * Mixed marriages and informal unions led to people of mixed heritage * Socidad de castas: social class system: Europeans/ whites on top, mixed races in middle, and full blooded Africans and Native Americans were on the bottom * Castas= People of mixed origin * Peninsulares: whites actually born in Spain * Creoles: whites born in the New World: increasing sense of identity (later many Creoles led independence movements in Latin America) * Patriarchal societies * Women did have full rights to inheritance * Upper-class women who were not married early were often put in convents The 18th-Century Reforms * Events on Iberian Peninsula eventually led to colonial unrest and movements for independence * Amigos del pais (friends of the country): Spain and colonies meetings to brainstorm reforms The Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade * Spain had foreign wars, increasing debt, declining population, and internal revolts * War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713): Spanish king, Charles II, died without an heir. Philip of Anjou, a Bourbon (an relation to King of France) was named successor to the Spanish throne. Treaty of Utrecht: Bourbon rulers of Spain, but France got trade concessions, England could trade slaves in Spanish America The Bourbon Reforms * Charles III (1759-1788) led Spain and worked for economic nationalism, strong centralized government, expelled the Jesuits * Reforms in America were linked to defense and military matters * CUBA: full-scale plantation and slave colony- exporting sugar, coffee, and tobacco and importing Africans Pombal and Brazil * Marquiz of Pombal: (1755-1776): Portugal's authoritarian prime minister. Wanted to apply mercantilism, expelled the Jesuits from the Portuguese Empire in 1759. Abolished slavery in Portugal, so that Brazil received a steady supply Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts * Rapid growth in population an productive capacity * Comunero Revolt: 1781- Rebel army almost took over the capital and the viceroy fled Bogota * Tupac Amaru (Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui), of Incan descent, led a rebellion against "bad govt.", more than 70,000 joined against the worst abuses of the colonial regime. Tupac was was captured and brutally executed.