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Transcript
PRESERVATION OF FISH AND
AQUATIC PRODUCTS II
2


Reducing the free-water

Drying

Salting

Smoking
Chemical means

Fermentation

Pickling
PRESERVING
3
DRYING

Removal of water from fish (to reduce water activity) to extend
shelf life

Requires input of heat (evaporate water)


Sun, wind, flame, electrical etc.
Requires removal of water in the form of vapor
4
DRYING PROCESS
Heat
Center
Surface
moisture
evaporates
More
water
Less
water
Water diffusion
More
water
vapor
Less
water
vapor
5

Drying occurs in two phases

Phase 1 (constant rate period)


Water removed from surface
Phase 2 (falling rate period)

Water is removed from muscle

Water migrates to the surface (diffusion)

Water evaporates at surface (requires heat)
Water is removed from the atmosphere surrounding the fish surface
DRYING PRINCIPLES

6
7
8
9
10
Advanced
automated driers
11

Problems with dried fish

If environmental T is warm and fish is too wet

Molds (Aw>0.75)




Grow very well when drying in tropical areas
Aerobic spoilage bacteria (if non-salted)
If salted (solar salt) can get halophiles growing

Pink colonies

Major problem with salted and dried cod
Pests

Insect parts and eggs a major quality problem

Flies (Dipteria) lay eggs and can spread disease

Less problem with fish pre-drying


Salting can deter flies

Some use insecticides on fish!
Rodents and birds are a constant problem
12

Problems with dried fish (cont.)

Lipid oxidation (rancidity)

Protein denaturation

Get muscle fragmentation

If drying is too rapid we can get “case hardening”: waterimpermeable skin at the surface

Case hardening

Flesh soft on the inside and spoiled by bacteria (extreme putrid odor)
13

Salting - traditional method

Reduces water activity (aw) to retard microbial spoilage and
chemical reactions

Salt penetrates into the muscle and binds the water.

At 6-10% in the meat will spoilage
SALTING
14

Different grades of salt, from 80-99.9% purity


Purer salt leads to less problems

less contaminants (less water uptake, bitterness)

less halophilic bacteria (salt tolerant)

Some salts can have up to 105 of bacteria
At least 95% purity should be used

Impure salts about 80% NaCl

Solar salt most impure (major source of halophiles)

Can purify by washing briefly with water (calcium and magnesium
dissolve sooner than NaCl)

Finer salts are ideal for brines (dissolve rapidly)

Larger size salt preferred during dry salting
15
Fish in saturated salt brine at 0.75
16
17

Methods of salting


Brine salting (15-25% solution)

Fish immersed in solution of salt

Frequent stirring necessary

Replacement of salt in brine may be needed

Need to supply fresh brine to new batch of fish
Dry salting (3-4 parts fish to 1 part salt)

Salt rubbed into fish surface and fish left uncovered to dry

Not recommended in tropical regions due to insects and rodents
18

Methods of salting (cont.)

Kench salting



Salt rubbed on split fish and stacked. Pickle formed which leaks away
Pickle salting

Same as above but pickle is not removed. Fish are packed in water
tight containers

Pickle is from water and blood leaking from the muscle as salt
penetrates

Need about 30% salt for this to occur
Salt brine injection

Fish injected with salt solution and phosphates, then soaked in salt
solution for 2 days (10 C=50 F) and then kench salted
19
Mackerel being dry-salted
20
Process example (salted groundfish):
Head, gut and wash fish
Soak in 10% brine for 30 min
Drain
Dry salt fish in shallow boxes
Stack fish up first one skin down, last one skin up
Leave for about 12 h (or up to 30 days)
Wash salt crystals away with 10% brine or seawater
Dry fish during day
Pile fish up overnight
Pack product
21
Typical cod salting operation (kench salting)
Splitting the cod
22
Salting the cod
23
Maturation period in salt
24
Drying the cod
25
Drying fish the old way (still widely done)
26
Quality inspection and packaging
27
Injection
28
Distributing the fish
29
2 day soaking period in salt
30
Fillet sorting/grading and packaging
31
Pickle salting
Early stages
Late stages
32


Factors influencing the salting process

Thickness -> thicker = slower NaCl uptake

Fat content -> more = slower NaCl uptake

Quality -> older = faster NaCl uptake

Salt concentration and quality

Temperature

More rapid salt penetration at higher temps

More chance of spoilage (normally in center of fish, turns into a smelly
paste)
Storage

Keep cool, dry and well ventilated

Have plenty of insect/rodent traps

The saltier the product the longer the shelf-life
33
34
Smoking
Old preservation method.
In developed countries, used for flavor and color
Flavors
Smoke
(Hot air)
Water
35
PREPARATION
Start with good quality seafood.
Whole, headed, gutted, split, fillets, chunks,
Salting
Brine (2-5%), spices, sugar
Air drying (a few hours)
36
PREPPING
BRINING
DRY BRINING
RACKING
INTO THE SMOKER
FINISHED!
SMOKING TEMPERATURE
1.
Cold smoking
Room temperature (<90 F)
Not cooked
Perishable product
2. Hot smoking
Temperature (>150 F)
Cooked
43
LIQUID SMOKE
Smoke is absorbed by a liquid, and concentrated.
Rapid, uniform, but different than “real” smoke
44
NATURE OF SMOKE
Mixture of particles and vapors.
1.
Vapors
More than 200 chemicals
Carbonyls, organic acids, phenols, organic bases,
alcohols, hydrocarbons, others.
Impart color and flavor enhancement
45
VAPORS
Antioxidants: high boiling phenols
Smoldering fire is better
Bactericidal: formaldehyde, acetic acid, creosote.
Also heat, drying, salt.
Reduces bacteria, fungi, viruses
46
SAFETY
Smoke has carcinogenic substances.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH):
Benz(o)pyrene. Thermally generated.
1-60 ppm in food.
Lower smoke generation T is better.
Use liquid smoke, or electrostatic filters.
Nitrosamines
Nitrous oxide in smoke: very low concentrations in food
47
SMOKE GENERATION
Wood:
Sawdust or wood chips heated to form smoke, but no flames.
Hardwood. Oak, mahogany, teak, hickory, redwood, cedar,
pitch-pine.
Resinous wood: bitter taste.
48
SMOKE GENERATION
Temperature:
High T: cooking, rapid drying, reaction between smoke and food.
Dry surface: less smoke absorption.
Optimum smoke generation = (550°F).
At higher T more smoke, but less active components.
49
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Surface moisture is needed for smoke absorption.
60 % RH optimum
Skin-side absorbs less smoke.
Too high RH: slow drying.
50
SMOKE VELOCITY
Faster smoke= better penetration
Absorbed smoke near surface is replenished.
Stagnant film on surface decreased, and diffusion path
shortened.
51
SMOKED QUALITY
Flavor: Low T is better.
Nutritive effects: loss of vitamins
Phenols react with sulfhydryl groups
Carbonlys react with amino groups
Texture: Drying, smoke-protein interactions
Color: carbonyl-amino reactions
Phenolics
52
FOOD FERMENTATION
UI Snack Bar
What are fermented foods?
Foods or food ingredients that rely
on microbial growth as part of their
processing or production
FOOD FERMENTATION

Metabolic activities occur during fermentation that:
Extend
shelf life by producing acids
Change
flavor and texture by
producing certain compounds such
as alcohol
Improve
the nutritive value of the
product by:
 Microorganisms
 Breakdown
can synthesize vitamins
indigestible materials to
release nutrients, i.e., bound nutrients
FERMENTED FOODS


Foods fermented by yeast

MaltBeer

Fruit (grapes)  Wine

Rice  Saki

Bread dough  Bread
Foods fermented by mold

Soybeans  Soy sauce

Cheese  Swiss cheese

Foods fermented by bacteria

Cucumbers  Dill pickles

Cabbage  Sauerkraut

Cream  Sour cream

Milk  Yogurt

Anaerobic breakdown of an organic substrate by an enzyme
system in which the final hydrogen acceptor is an organic
compound

Example:
NADH2
Pyruvic acid
(CH3-CO-COOH)

NAD
Lactic acid
(CH3-CHOH-COOH)
Biological processes that occur in the dark and that do not
involve respiratory chains with oxygen or nitrate as electron
acceptors
FOOD FERMENTATIONS –
DEFINITIONS
Sugars … Acids … Alcohols, Aldehydes
Proteins … Amino acids … Alcohols, Aldehydes
Lipids … Free fatty acids … Ketones
FOOD FERMENTATIONS –
BIOCHEMISTRY
Respiration vs. fermentation
Refer to how cells generate energy
from carbohydrates
RESPIRATION:
• Glycolysis + TCA (Kreb’s) Cycle + Electron Transport
• O2 is final electron acceptor
• Glucose is completely oxidized to CO2
C6H12O6 + 6 O2
38(Glucose)
ATP
6 CO2 + 6 H2O +

Some organisms (facultative anaerobes), including yeast and
many bacteria, can survive using either fermentation or
respiration.
 For
facultative anaerobes,
pyruvate is a fork in the
metabolic road that leads
to two alternative routes.
Fig. 9.18
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Respiration vs. fermentation
FERMENTATION:
• An organic compound is the final electron
acceptor
• Glucose is converted to one or more 1-3
carbon
Examples:
compounds
CH O
2 CH -CH OH + 2CO + 2 ATP
6
12
6
(Glucose)
3
2
2
(ethanol)
C6H12O6
2 CH3-CHOH-COOH + 2 ATP
(lactic acid)
C6H12O6
CH3-CHOH-COOH +
CH3-CH2OH + CO2 + 1 ATP

During lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced directly by
NADH to form lactate (ionized form of lactic acid).

Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to
make cheese and yogurt.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two
steps.

First, pyruvate is converted to a two-carbon compound,
acetaldehyde by the removal of CO2.

Second, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol.

Alcohol fermentation
by yeast is used in
brewing and
winemaking.
Fig. 9.17a
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins can all be
catabolized through the
same pathways.
Fig. 9.19
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Respiration vs. fermentation
Some cells can respire and ferment sugars for
energy. The cell will do one or the other
depending on the conditions.
Example: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s,
ale and wine yeast).
Some cells can only respire or only ferment
sugars for energy.
Example: Lactic acid bacteria produce energy
by fermentation.
Important organisms
•lactic acid bacteria
Lactobacillus
Carnobacterium
Leuconostoc
Enterococcus
Pediococcus
Lactococcus
Streptococcus
Vagococcus
•yeasts
Saccharomyces sp. (esp. S.
cerevisiae)
Zygosaccharomyces
•molds
Aspergillu
s
Penicilliu
m
Geotrichum Rhizopus
Candida
Typical fermentation process
•substrate disappears as cell mass increases
•sugar, then other small molecules, then polymers used
•primary metabolic products (acids) accumulate during growth
•pH drops if acids produced
•growth and product formation stop as substrate is depleted
•microbial succession depends on substrate and acid levels
Food Fermentations
In food fermentations, we exploit
microorganisms’ metabolism for food
production and preservation.
Where do the microorganisms come from
to initiate the food fermentation?
Two ways to initiate a food fermentation….
...traditional & controlled fermentations

Natural fermentation

Create conditions to inhibit undesirable fermentation yet allow
desirable fermentation

Examples:

Vegetable fermentations
CONTROLLED VS. NATURAL
FERMENTATION

Vegetables + salt

Controlled fermentation

Deliberately add microorganisms to ensure desired fermentation

Example: fermented dairy products

Lactose … Lactic acid

Starter culture

Lactics or Lactic starter or Lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
CONTROLLED VS. NATURAL
FERMENTATION
Traditional Fermentation
Incubation
under specific
conditions
Raw material with
indigenous microflora
Final product
= desirable m/o’s
= undesirable (pathogen or spoilage) m/o’s
Disadvantage: Process and product are unpredictable depending on
source of raw material, season, cleanliness of facility, etc.
Advantage: Some flavors unique to a region or product may only be
attained this way.
Controlled Fermentation
Add starter culture
Raw material
Incubation
under specific
conditions
Final product
Advantage: – uniformity, efficient, more control of process and product
Disadvantage: Isolating the right strain(s) to inoculate is not always easy.
Complexity of flavors may decrease.
Controlled Fermentations: Starter cultures
Two main starter culture types are used to
inoculate the raw material:
1. Pure microbial cultures prepared
specifically for a particular food
fermentation. (More details on these
later.)
2. “Backslop” method = Using some of the
product from a previous successful
fermentation to inoculate the next
Controlled Fermentation: pure cultures
Add pure microbial
culture
Raw material
Incubation
under specific
conditions
Pure culture
Final product
Controlled Fermentation: “backslop” method
Add product (or byproduct)
from a recent successful
fermentation
Raw material
Final product from a
previous fermentation
(traditional or controlled)
Incubation
under specific
conditions
Final product
Mainly used in home applications in the U.S. – home production of yogurt and sourdough
Summary
• Why we ferment foods
• Microbial energy metabolism:
respiration vs. fermentation
• Traditional fermentations – indigenous microflora
• Controlled fermentations – starter culture added
Food products
from milk:
cheese, yogurt, sour cream, buttermilk
lactic acid bacteria (lactobacilli, streptococci)
meats:
fermented sausages, hams, fish (Asia)
lactic acid bacteria (lactobacilli, pediococci), molds
beverages:
•beer (yeasts make ethanol)
•wines (ethanol fermentation from grapes, other fruits)
•vinegar (ethanol oxidized to acetic acid)
•breads:
•sourdough (yeast + lactobacilli)
•crackers, raised breads (yeasts)
single cell protein:
how cheaply and efficiently can cells be grown?
waste materials as substrate (bacteria,
yeast, molds)
sunlight and CO2 (algae)
uses in animal feeds (frequently) or human foods
prefer protein to whole cells
high nucleic acids --> kidney stones,
ORGANIC ACIDS

Primary Metabolites

Organic acids are. (primary products of metabolism).

During the log phase of growth the products
produced are essential to the growth of the cells.

Secondary metabolites:
(Secondary products of metabolism)

During the stationary phase some microbial cultures
synthesize compounds which are not produced during
the trophophase* and do not appear to have any
obvious function in cell metabolism.(idiophase*)

Fermentation = treat with microbes
– Desirable microbes digest food first
– Preserves food (depending on microorganism)

Makes food inedible for undesired microbes
– Alcohol, acid buildup
– Makes food digestible

Breaks down indigestible fibers

Adds nutrients

Microbially produced vitamins
FERMENTATION
85
FERMENTATION

In developed countries, fermentation is used to provide desired
tastes and / or flavors. Preservation is a secondary benefit.

In developing countries, and the Far East, fermented aquatic
products provide a significant portion of the protein need.
86

Since sauces and pastes prepared in these areas are salty and
spicy, they provide a significant departure from a rather bland
cereal diet.

Because the high salt content limits the consumption, sauces and
pastes used as flavor/taste enhancers often served over rice.
FERMENTATION

Fermented aquatic products are prepared by salting and then
fermenting.

Salting selects desired bacteria,eliminating spoilers, prevents
putrification.

Controlling oxygen content determines characteristics. The most
common putrefactive microorganisms on fish are inhibited at salt
contents above 6 to 8 percent.
FERMENTATION
88

Microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, or molds), and digestive
enzymes decompose the product into a soluble protein portion
and a high ash portion.

The fermentation process has several benefits. The product is far
more stable than the original raw product, and there is often a
volume reduction.
EFFECTS OF FERMENTATION
89
VARIABLES
(1)
the microflora in the fish and salt,
(2) the proteolytic enzymes in the fish,
(3) initial quality of the product,
(4) presence or absence of oxygen,
(5) nutritional state of the fish,
90
(6) fermenting temperature,
(7) pH of the fermentation mixture,
(8) the presence of enzymes,
(9) presence/concentration of carbohydrates,
(10) the length of fermentation.
VARIABLES

Calcium, magnesium, sulfate ion impurities= bitter flavor, tough
texture light color.

Several techniques are available for increasing the rate of
fermentation:

(1) using higher temperatures, (2) adding concentrated
chemical enzymes, (3) bacterial seeding, and (4) acid additions.
QUALITY (FERMENTATION)
92
QUESTIONS?
93