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Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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A drug can be defined as a natural or
synthetic substance that is used to produce
physiological or psychological effects in
humans or other higher order animals.
Narcotic drugs are analgesics, meaning they
relieve pain by a depressing action on the
central nervous system. This effects
functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate,
and breathing rate.
The regular use of a narcotic drug will
invariably lead to physical dependence.
The most common source for these narcotic
drugs is opium, extracted from poppies.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Morphine is readily extracted from opium
and is used to synthesize heroin.
Addicts frequently dissolve heroin in water
by heating it in a spoon, and then inject in
the skin.
Heroin produces a “high” that is
accompanied by drowsiness and a sense of
well-being that generally last for three to
four hours.
Codeine is also present in opium, but it is
usually prepared synthetically from
morphine.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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OxyContin, with the active ingredient
oxycodone, is not derived from opium or
morphine, but does have the same
physiological effects on the body as do
opium narcotics.
OxyContin is prescribed to a million
patients for treatment of chronic pain.
Methadone is another well-known synthetic
opiate.
Methadone which is pharmacologically
related to heroin, appears to eliminate the
addict’s desire for heroin while producing
minimal side effects.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Another class of drugs is hallucinogens;
marijuana is the most well-known member of
this class.
Hallucinogens cause marked changes in
normal thought processes, perceptions, and
moods.
Marijuana is the most controversial drug in this
class because its long-term effects on health are
still largely unknown.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Marijuana refers to a preparation derived from
the plant Cannabis.
The chemical substance largely responsible for
the hallucinogenic properties of marijuana is
known as tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC.
The THC content of Cannabis varies in
different parts of the plant, generally
decreasing in the following sequence: resin,
flowers, leaves, with little THC in the stem,
roots, or seeds.
The THC-rich resin is known as hashish.
Marijuana does not cause physical
dependency, but the risk of harm is in heavy,
long-term use.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Other hallucinogens include LSD, mescaline, PCP,
psilocybin, and MDMA (Ecstasy).
LSD is synthesized from lysergic acid, and can
cause hallucinations that can last for 12 hours.
Phencyclidine, or PCP, is often synthesized in
clandestine laboratories and is often smoked,
ingested, or sniffed.
Phencyclidine is often mixed with other drugs, such
as LSD, or amphetamine, and is sold as a powder
(“angle dust”), capsule, or tablet.
Oral intake of PCP first leads to feelings of strength
and invulnerability, which may turn to depression,
tendencies toward violence, and suicide.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Depressants are another class of drugs.
Depressants are substances used to depress
the functions of the central nervous system.
Depressants calm irritability and anxiety
and may induce sleep.
These include alcohol (ethanol),
barbiturates, tranquilizers, and various
substances that can be sniffed, such as
airplane glue, model cement, or aerosol gas
propellants such as freon.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Alcohol (ethyl alcohol) enters the body’s
bloodstream and quickly travels to the brain,
where it acts to suppress the brain’s control of
thought processes and muscle coordination.
Barbiturates, or “downers,” are normally
taken orally and create a feeling of well-being,
relax the body, and produce sleep.
Tranquilizers, unlike barbiturates, produce a
relaxing tranquility without impairment of
high-thinking faculties or inducing sleep.
Sniffing has immediate effects such as
exhilaration, but impairs judgment and may
cause liver, heart, and brain damage or even
death.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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The drug classification of stimulants includes
amphetamines, sometimes known as “uppers”
or “speed,” and cocaine, which in its free-base
form is known as crack.
Stimulants are substances taken to increase
alertness or activity, followed by a decrease in
fatigue and a loss of appetite.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Amphetamine and methamphetamine, often
injected intravenously, cause an initial
“rush,” followed by an intense feeling of
pleasure.
This is followed by a period of exhaustion
and a prolonged period of depression.
Cocaine, extracted from the leaves of
Erythroxylin coca, causes increased alertness
and vigor, accompanied by the suppression
of hunger, fatigue, and boredom.
Crack is cocaine mixed with baking soda and
water, then heated.
Crack is often smoked in glass pipes, and,
like cocaine, stimulates the brain’s pleasure
center.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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The term club drugs refers to synthetic drugs
that are used at nightclubs, bars, and raves (allnight dance parties).
Substances that are often used as club drugs
include, but are not limited to, MDMA
(Ecstasy), GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate),
Rohypnol (“Roofies”), ketamine, and
methamphetamine.
GHB and Rohypnol are central nervous system
depressants that are often connected with
drug-facilitated sexual assault, rape, and
robbery.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, also known as
MDMA or Ecstasy, is a synthetic mind-altering drug
that exhibits many hallucinogenic and amphetaminelike effects.
Ecstasy enhances self-awareness and decreases
inhibitions; however, seizures, muscle breakdown,
stroke, kidney failure, and cardiovascular system
failure often accompany chronic abuse.
Ketamine is primarily used as a veterinary animal
anesthetic that in humans causes euphoria and
hallucinations.
Ketamine can also cause impaired motor functions,
high blood pressure, amnesia, and mild respiratory
depression.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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Yet another category of drugs is the anabolic
steroids.
These are synthetic compounds that are
chemically related to the male sex hormone
testosterone.
Anabolic steroids are often abused by
individuals who are interested in accelerating
muscle growth.
Side effects include unpredictable effects on
mood and personality, depression, diminished
sex drive, halting bone growth, and liver
cancer.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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The U.S. federal law known as the
Controlled Substances Act will serve to
illustrate a legal drug-classification system
created to prevent and control drug abuse.
This federal law establishes five schedules of
classification for controlled dangerous
substances on the basis of a drug’s:
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Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
potential for abuse
potential for physical and psychological
dependence
medical value
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Schedule I drugs have a high potential for
abuse and have no currently accepted medical
use such as heroin, marijuana, methaqualone
and LSD.
Schedule II drugs have a high potential for
abuse and have medical use with severe
restrictions such as cocaine, PCP, and most
amphetamine and barbiturate prescriptions.
Schedule III drugs have less potential for abuse
and a currently accepted medical use such as
all barbiturate prescriptions not covered under
Schedule II, codeine, and anabolic steroids.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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Schedule IV drugs have a low potential for
abuse and have a current medical use such as
darvon, phenobarbital, and some tranquilizers
such as diazepam (valium) and
chlordiazepoxide (librium).
Schedule V drugs must show low abuse
potential and have medical use such as opiate
drug mixtures that contain nonnarcotic
medicinal ingredients.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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The challenge or difficulty of forensic drug
identification comes in selecting analytical
procedures that will ensure a specific
identification of a drug.
This plan, or scheme of analysis, is divided
into two phases.
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Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
Screening test that is nonspecific and preliminary
in nature to reduce the possibilities to a
manageable number.
Confirmation test that is a single test that
specifically identifies a substance.
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Faced with the prospect that the unknown
substance may be any one of a thousand or
more commonly encountered drugs, the
analyst must employ screening tests to reduce
these possibilities to a small and manageable
number.
This objective is often accomplished by
subjecting the material to a series of color tests
that will produce characteristic colors for the
more commonly encountered illicit drugs.
Microcrystalline tests can also be used to
identify specific drug substances by studying
the size and shape of crystals formed when the
drug is mixed with specific reagents.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
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Once this preliminary analysis is completed, a
confirmational determination is pursued.
Forensic chemists will employ a specific test to
identify a drug substance to the exclusion of all
other known chemical substances.
Typically infrared spectrophotometry or mass
spectrometry is used to specifically identify a
drug substance.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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The field investigator has the responsibility of
ensuring that the evidence is properly
packaged and labeled for the laboratory.
Generally common sense is the best guide,
keeping in mind that the package must prevent
the loss of the contents and/or crosscontamination.
Often the original container in which the drug
was seized will suffice.
All packages must be marked with information
that is sufficient to ensure identification by the
officer in the future and establish the chain of
custody.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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

A drug is a natural or synthetic substance that is
used to produce physiological or psychological
effects in humans or other higher-order animals.
Narcotic drugs are analgesics, meaning they
•
relieve pain by a depressing action on the central
nervous system.•
The most common source for narcotic drugs is
opium. Morphine is extracted from opium and
used to synthesize heroin.
Opiates are not derived from opium or morphine,
but they have the same physiological effects on the
body. Examples of opiates include methadone and
OxyContin (oxycodone).
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-



Hallucinogens cause marked changes in normal
thought processes, perceptions, and moods. Marijuana
is the most well-known drug in this class. Other
hallucinogens include LSD, mescaline, PCP, psilocybin,
and MDMA (Ecstasy)
Depressants decrease the activity of the central nervous
system, calm irritability and excitability, and may
cause sleep. Depressants include alcohol (ethanol),
barbiturates, tranquilizers, and various substances that
can be sniffed, such as airplane glue or model cement.•
Stimulants increase the activity of the central nervous
system and are taken to increase alertness and activity.
Stimulants include amphetamines, sometimes known
as “
“uppers“
” or “
“speed,“
” and cocaine, which in its
freebase form is known as crack.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
Club drugs are synthetic drugs that are used at nightclubs, bars,
and raves (all-night dance parties). Some club drugs act as
stimulants; others have depressant effects. Substances that
are often used as club drugs include, but are not limited to,
MDMA (Ecstasy), GHB (gamma hydroxybutyrate),
Rohypnol (“
“roofies“
”), ketamine, and methamphetamine.
Anabolic steroids are synthetic compounds that are chemically
related to the male sex hormone testosterone. Anabolic
steroids are often abused by individuals who are interested
in accelerating muscle growth.•
Federal law establishes five schedules of classification for
controlled dangerous substances on the basis of a drug’s
potential for abuse, potential for physical and psychological
dependence, and medical value.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-



Analysts employ screening tests to determine the
identity of drugs present in a sample. These tests
reduce the number of possible drugs to a small and
manageable number
A series of color tests produce characteristic colors
for the more commonly encountered illicit drugs.•
After preliminary testing, forensic chemists
employ more specific tests to identify a drug
substance to the exclusion of all other known
chemical substances. Infrared spectrophotometry
and mass spectrometry typically are used to
specifically identify a drug substance.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
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Name two physiological factors and two non-drug factors that influence drug dependence.
Under what class of drugs is cocaine listed according to U.S. federal drug laws? Explain why this
classification is pharmacologically incorrect.
What is the source of most narcotic drugs? From what plant is this substance derived?
What opium derivative is most widely used by addicts? How is it typically administered? Give two
reasons why this route of administration is popular.
What is the most widely used illicit drug in the United States? Under what class of drugs is it listed
and what are its short-term physical and psychological effects at low to moderate doses?
What is the most widely abused drug in the United States? Under what class of drugs is it listed
and what are its short-term physical and psychological effects at low to moderate doses?
How can excessive use of depressants cause death?
Name the two most commonly abused illegal stimulants and the smokable forms of each. Why
does smoking provide a more intense drug experience than inhaling, or “
“snorting,“
” stimulants?
Name two club drugs that are associated with drug-facilitated sexual assault, rape, and robbery.
Why are these drugs relatively easy to administer to an unsuspecting victim?
What is the most popular club drug? Name three negative health effects associated with chronic
use of the drug.
Criminalistics, 10e
Richard Saferstein
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
8-
On what three criteria does the Controlled Substances Act classify dangerous
substance?
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According to the Controlled Substances Act, what is the legal difference between a
schedule I drug and a schedule II drug?
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What is a controlled substance analog? Why are such substances considered schedule
I drugs
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What is a precursor? How is possession of a precursor treated under the Controlled
Substances Ac?
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List and describe the two phases in a criminalist“
’s scheme of action for identifying a
drug
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What two goals must laboratory testing accomplish to positively identify a drug
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How does a color test work? What is the main limitation of a color test for identifying
drugs?
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Describe how a microcrystalline test works. Name two advantages of microcrystalline
tests?
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How are ultraviolet spectrophotometry and infrared spectrophotometry used in drug
analysis?
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Name two botanical features used to identify marijuana under a microscope. What
method of examination is often used when a microscopic examination cannot be
© 2011, 2007, 2004, 2001, 1998, 1995 Pearson Higher Education,
Criminalistics,
10e
obtained?
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.

Richard Saferstein
8-