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 In Conjunction with
Model of the Second Temple of Jerusalem
Introduction to Judaism
Instructor: Dr. Eliezer Segal Eliezer Segal holds a Ph.D in Talmud from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and serves as
Professor of Religious Studies at the University of Calgary. He has published over one dozen books, has over
300 published articles, and over 50 scholarly articles published. He is committed to bringing the fruits of
academic research to wider audiences through his popular newspaper columns in the Calgary Jewish
newspapers.
Textbook:
D. Cohn-Sherbok, Judaism: History, Belief and Practice.
Course Description:
This course will present a survey of developments in Jewish practice, belief and institutions from
the close of the biblical era to the present day.
Students will be introduced to the distinctive features associated with Judaism in various eras,
and the major works of Jewish religious literature.
Attention will be devoted to the values, beliefs and rituals that developed within the diverse
historical and cultural settings in which Judaism took root.
Note that this is a course on the Jewish religion. It will not deal directly with the national or
political history of the Jewish people, nor with the attitudes of other religions towards Jews and
Judaism (even though these aspects are covered quite extensively in the textbook).
Core Competencies:
While learning about Judaism, students will be trained in research skills, which include:
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how to find and organize data (primarily through library research)
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how to read critically and analytically in order to draw conclusions from the
evidence of documents
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how to evaluate the plausibility of claims and theories that have been proposed by
scholars.
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how to present the results of one's research in a logical and coherent manner.
Course Requirements:
There will be a final examination in this course.
Class Outline
Topic
Chapters in:
D. Cohn-Sherbok,
Judaism: History, Belief
and Practice
Introduction to the course
The Second Temple Era I
15-18
Film: The Shaping of Traditions
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode3/index.html
The Second Temple Era II
15-18
Rabbinic Judaism
20-24
Medieval Judaism
27, 28
Medieval Philosophy
31-33
Film: The Crucible of Europe
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode4/
Mysticism and Kabbalah
34-37
Hasidism
38-40
Film: Roads from the Ghetto
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode6/
Emancipation and Enlightenment
41, 43
Reform Judaism
44
Positive-Historical and Conservative Judaism
44, 72
Orthodoxy
44, 72
Judaism after the Holocaust
52-53
Jewish Theology
55-61
Torah and Commandments
62-65
Jewish Peoplehood and Nationalism
66. 67, 70
Guide to Research
Prayer and Liturgy
68, 75, 76
Death and Afterlife
71
Sacred Time: The Jewish Calendar
74
The Sabbath
77
The Pilgrimage Festivals
79
The High Holy Days
80
Minor Festivals
81, 82
Life Cycle
83, 84, 88
Home and Family
86
Dietary Laws
87
Final Exam
The Remains of the Second Temple’s Western Wall Judaism during the Second Temple Era Important developments of the time:
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Redaction and acceptance of the Bible as national covenant ‐‐> perceived end of active prophecy; importance of seeking God's guidance through study of the Bible. Perception of ancient revelations as "foretellings" of the future. Political transition from o Persian era ƒ Peaceful time, little information about it. ƒ Centrality of Temple and Priesthood in leadership and religious life. ƒ Influence of Persian religious beliefs ‐‐ e.g., angels [and Satan], afterlife [resurrection]. o to Hellenistic era Synthesis of Greek and Middle Eastern cultures. Translation of Bible to Greek: Septuagint An old manuscript of the Septuagint •
Synthesis of biblical religion with Greek philosophy: Philo of Alexandria Philo of Alexandria •
Pressure to assimilate to "global" standards, including religious reforms. o Forced imposition of Hellenistic religious reforms by Antiochus IV Epiphanes: ƒ Gymnasium in Jerusalem ƒ Forbidding of circumcision, Sabbath, Torah study. ƒ Eclectic cult in Temple: Sacrificing pigs to Zeus. ƒ Unclear whether the initiative came from Antiochus or from Jewish Hellenists. o Successful revolt against reforms was lead by the Hasmoneans, a priestly family. A coin issued by the Hasmonean king Alexander Janneus (103‐76 BC)
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Their successful rededication and purification of the Temple in 64 B.C.E. was marked by the creation of a new holiday: Hanukkah ["Feast of Dedication"]. o
Hasmoneans established themselves as political rulers and High Priests. ƒ According to tradition, kings were supposed to be from the dynasty of King David, and High Priests from the descendents of Zadok. Historical background for sectarian divisions:
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Collapse of the coalition that had joined forces against the extreme Hellenists in the Maccabean / Hasmonean revolt. o Dissatisfaction with assumption of political power and high priesthood by Hasmonean dynasty: Sadducees claimed the priesthood; royalty was supposed to come from the line of David, the non‐priestly tribe of Judah. Summary of Disputes Among the Three Parties:
Essenes [Including information from Qumran scrolls] Sect: Sadducees Pharisees Origin of Name: From Hebrew : P'rushim, meaning Descendants "separated of Zadok, ones"‐‐ because ancient High their strict Priestly standards of family purity limited their contacts with common people. Social Class: Priests, aristocrats Common people
Figures of Authority: Priests "Disciples of the "Teacher of Righteousness" Wise" For Hellenism. Attitude to Allied with Hellenism the Romans and Romans: as being able to guarantee the safety of Unclear: Possibly from word meaning 'healers" [Possibly founded by extreme Sadducees] Selective Synthesis between Against Hellenistic assimilation and cultural the Temple separation Opposed Varied? usurpation of Attitide to priesthood Opposed
Hasmoneans: by non‐
usurpation of
Zadokites monarchy?
Theology: Free will Yes Varied? Personally opposed to Jonathan ("Wicked
Priest")?
Mostly No Angels No Yes [Yes] (in Dead Sea Scrolls) Afterlife None Resurrection Spiritual Survival (?) Attitude to Bible: Literalist Sophisticated scholarly interpretations: "Pesher" (interpreted Scripture as foretelling of applied Torah to recent history) "Inspired Exegesis" all aspects of life. Attitude to Oral Torah: Rejected Equal to Written Developed their own body of interpretation and Torah extra biblical traditions. Practices: Temple and the surrounding rituals considered the central element for religious life. Application of priestly laws to non‐priests (tithes and purity
rules) Distinctive interpretations of Torah laws, special rules for their own community ("Manual of Discipline") , shared property, celibacy, strong emphasis on purity. Luni‐solar Solar: 364‐day year Calendar: Luni-solar
(perhaps
only under
popular
pressure?)
Of the Second Commonwealth movements, only the Pharisees survived the
destruction of the Temple in the guise of the "Rabbis."
Rabbinic Judaism The spoil of Jerusalem as depicted on the Arch of Titus in Rome With the fall of Jerusalem and the loss of the Temple, the
Pharisaic leadership tried to adjust Judaism to the new
reality.
Sadducees and Essenes are no longer heard from.
Generation of Yavneh (Jamnia):
Yavneh (Jamnia) •
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Set pattern for debate and discussion on religious law and interpretation. Developed elaborate techniques for interpretation of the Torah: Midrash Began collecting and organizing the older oral traditions. Determined how to observe rituals without Temple. Organizing of liturgy: Composing of basic prayers, and how to recite them (individual and communal). Discussed the status of certain books to be included in or excluded from body of sacred scriptures. The First Page of the Mishnah according to the Kaufmann Manuscript ‐ Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest Names of teachers are highlighted in yellow Year
(C.E.)
Historical
Events
Limited
c. 50 autonomy under
Roman rule
70
135
Destruction of
Second Temple
Bar Kokhba
Revolt
Name of
Rabbinic
Period
Works of Rabbinic Literature
Tanna'itic
(Yavneh
[=Jamnia]:
Restoration of
Mishnah (halakhic)
Jewish
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/TalmudMap/Mishnah.html
Religious
Halakhic Midrash
Life.)
(Usha:
Transfer of
religious
centre from
Judea to
Galilee
Start of
Amoraic era
c. 220
Palestinian ("Jerusalem") Talmud,
Manuscript of the Palestinian Talmud c. Christianization
of Roman
320Empire
375
End of
Amoraic era in
the Land of
Israel
c. 400
Aggadic Midrash End of
Amoraic era in
Babylonia
c. 500
Babylonian Talmud
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/TalmudPage.html
Start of
Savoraic Era
634
c. 700
Muslim conquest
of Babylonia
End of
Savoraic Era
Manuscript of the Babylonian Talmud
Redaction of Babylonian Talmud
The Principal Genres of Rabbinic Literature:
Halakhah (Law)
Aggadah [=Haggadah] (Not
Law: Does include: Biblical
interpretation, ethical maxims,
stories, folklore, etc.
Midrash (attached to Bible. Halakhic Midrash: [="Tannaitic
Usually for traditions that Midrash"]: Commentaries to most
were derived from the of the Torah by the schools of
Bible. Rabbi Akiba and Rabbi Ishmael
Aggadic midrash [almost
entirely from the Amoraic
period]
Mishnah (independent of
The Mishnah (by Rabbi Judah the
the Bible. Useful for nonPrince).
Biblical "Oral Law"
Tosefta
traditions, enactments, etc.)
Very rare: e.g. Tractate Avot
("Ethics of the Fathers")
The Six Orders of the Mishnah:
Major Topics
1. Zera'im (Seeds):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Kilayim (Mixed Species) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700 1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
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Donations that must be removed from produce for Priests, poor, etc. Prohibitions related to agricultural activity: Cross‐breeding, sabbatical year, etc. Prayers and blessings (Why?) 2. Mo'ed (Times):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Sukkah (Tabernacles) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700 1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
Sabbath, Festivals and the cycles of the Jewish calendar. 3. Nashim (Women):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Kiddushin (Betrothal) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700-1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
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Family Law‐‐betrothal, marriage, divorce, levirate marriage, incest prohibitions. Vows. 4. Neziqin (Damages):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Sanhedrin (Courts) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700 -1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
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Civil Law (damages, debts and obligations, contracts, etc.) Court system, and matters relating to the history of the legal tradition. Criminal law and capital offenses (including idolatry). 5. Qodashim (Sacred things):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Sanhedrin (Courts) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700 -1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
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The Jerusalem Temple. Sacrifices. Vows to the Temple. 6. Toharot (Purity):
Title page engraving for the Tractate Mikvaot (Purification Baths) from edition of Mishnah, Amsterdam, 1700 1704 in the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem •
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The transmission of impurity. The means of purification. Effects of defilement on access to Temple, consumption of sacred foods, etc. Rabbinic Judaism
Some Central Beliefs and Values of Talmudic Judaism
God
Belief in One God
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Rejection of idolatry / polytheism
God is both a loving parent and a righteous judge.
Relates to humanity according to Standard of Justice and Standard of Mercy.
Humanity
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"Everything is in the hands of Heaven, except for the fear of Heaven": --> Humans are
responsible for their moral and religious actions.
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Every human being has a Good Urge and a Bad Urge. Both are necessary: The "bad
urge" is the source of sexual desire, ambition, etc., and should be channeled to
constructive uses.
While Jews are required to observe the 613 commandments of the Torah, there are seven
fundamental commandments that are expected of the rest of humanity ("children of
Noah").
Afterlife concepts: The righteous are rewarded in the "Garden of Eden" and the wicked
are punished in "Gehinnom."
God's Presence (Shekhinah) dwells in the world, and accompanies the people of Israel
through their exiles.
Israel
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God made a special covenant with the descendants of Abraham, embodied in the
Study of Torah as a central religious obligation. --> Scholarship is an important religious
value.
Belief in ultimate redemption:
o Restoration of the Israelite monarchy under an annointed king from the house of
David (Messiah).
o Rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple.
o Ingathering of the exiles.
o Universal acknowledgment of the one God.
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Resurrection of the dead. Medieval Judaism Differences in comparison to the previous (Talmudic) era
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Judaism was no longer the sole monotheistic faith in a pagan world. Most Jews lived under monotheistic religions‐‐Christianity or Islam‐‐that also shared the same scriptural traditions. This fact served both as a source of toleration and as a source of friction (as each community claimed to be the legitimate follower of the prophetic tradition). Talmudic literature was now considered complete and authoritative. The Talmuds were accepted by rabbinic Jews as the authoritative formulation of the Oral Torah. Talmudic Judaism arose in only two main centres: Israel and Babylonia. o Babylonia produced only its Talmud. o Israel also produced Midrash, Masora (science of Bible text and reading), liturgical poetry (piyyut) •
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Under the Ge'onim, there was an attempt to maintain strong centralization. Medieval Judaism flourished in many places Page from the Worms Mahzor, Illuminated prayerbook, Germany 13th Century
New divisions and movements
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Broad cultural divisions: o Sepharadim: Jews of Muslim lands o Ashkenazim: Jews of Christian lands. Jews in Christian lands faced more severe persecutions and atttacks. Development of models of piety that promoted martyrdom (kiddush hashem = "sanctificaiton of the divine name"). Struggle between Babylonia and Israel for leadership over Jewish world. Parallel to competition between Sunni Caliphate (in Baghdad) and rival Muslim leadership, especially Fatimid Ismailis in Egypt. •
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Struggles between religious authority (Ga'on) and political authority (Exilarch.). Appearances of new Jewish theologies: Rationalist, Kabbalistic, Moralistic, etc. Approaches to biblical exegesis: D'rash‐‐ according to the traditional midrashic and talmudic interpretations; vs. the new P'shat, literal, "scientific" reading of the text. Types of Medieval Talmudic Literature
1. Commentaries
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Explanatory: Rashi Critical: Tosafot (additions to Rashi); Hiddushim (novelae, new interpretations). 2. Codes of Law
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Purposes: 1. To determine which of the views recorded is the Talmud is the one to be followed (normative). 2. To organize the scattered sources so that they can be more easily found. 3. Responsa ("Questions and Answers")
Collections of answers sent by leading rabbis to inquiries on points of Jewish law and
interpretation.
Important vehicle for adaptation of Jewish law to changing circumstances
Very useful for historians (now accessible in digital form
http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Responsa/).
Medieval Judaism
Rationalism and Philosophy Limited primarily to Sepharadic realm.
Tendency towards systematic thought affects additional activities; e.g., codification of religious
law.
Rediscovery of Greek philsophical tradition by Muslim Arabs.
Though Philo had dealt with many of the same topics, his works were not known to medieval
Jews.
Translation of Plato, Aristotle and others from Syriac to Arabic.
Usefulness for arguing truth of monotheism, morality and other features of traditional revealed
religions.
Philosophers tend to be more universalistic in outlook, less emphasis on special status of Jewish
people.
Sa'adiah Ga'on: Book
of Doctrines and
Opinions
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Saadiah Gaon: Book of Beliefs and Opinions, Amsterdam 1647
Composed in Arabic, in style of Muslim Kalam literature. Presumes that philosophy/science and revealed religion lead to same conclusions. Raises question: Why is there need for two sources of truth? Problem of divine attributes: If multiple qualities apply to God, can he truly be "one"? Solution: Most attributes are mere metaphors directed to limitations of human mind. I God there is no real distinction. Anthropomorphism: All language that suggests that God is physical or human‐like should be understood as figures of speech, and never literally. Proposes scientific/logical proofs for the existence of God. Why did God create the universe? So that there will be free human beings who choose to love God, and whom he may therefore reward with goodness. Utilizes analytical methods to sort out confused concepts from Bible and Talmud; e.g., about afterlife, Resurrection, World to Come, Messianic era. Neoplatonism
Statue of Solomon Ibn Gabirol •
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Some important representatives: Solomon ibn Gabirol, Bahya ibn Pakuda Dualistic tendencies: Stressed the soul's need to transcend material existence, to return to its spiritual source: the One. Ongoing question of how the diverse material world could have been created by the/a God who is absolutely One and purely spiritual. Neoplatonists often proposed complex processes of emanation, gradual progression from the spiritual to the material. Advocated esthetic discipline to neutralize the physical appetites. Influenced by Muslim Sufi mystics. Moses Maimonides (Rambam)
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Major philosophical work: The Guide of the Perplexed. Regarded Aristotelian philosophy as the key to understanding Judaism. The ultimate goal of humanity is to be philosophers, to contemplate the most abstract of ideas, that of God. Only a small elite can reach this level. It is only through the contemplation of eternal truth that the soul achieves immortality. Problematic nature of the traditional belief in physical resurrection. Some humans can actualize their "potential intellect" by communing with the lowest level of abstract "separate intelligences" (identified with angels): ‐‐> "actual intellect". Ultimately, God is totally beyond description by human language, Rabbi Moses Maimonides •
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and has no personality. Biblical descriptions of God are limited to: 1. Attributes of action: e.g., if a human had achieved such an effect, we would have ascribed it to such an emotion. 2. Negative theology: The attribute has no understandable content, but merely denies its opposite; e.g., we cannot meaningfully speak of God's wisdom, but we can deny that he is subject to ignorance. Problem of creation vs. eternity of the universe: Philosophers insisted that the world must have always existed, matter could not have come into existence out of nothing. Maimonides: The case ascribed to Aristotle is not conclusive. Tentatively, it is preferable to accept the simple meaning of the Bible, that the universe was created out of nothing. This idea has religious advantages of stressing God's absolute control. Maimonides concedes that, if an irrefutable proof should be found for the eternity of the universe, there would be no problem in reinterpreting Scripture accordingly. Purpose of the commandments: All the biblical precepts are interpreted as promoting philosophical contemplation of God. Ethical laws create secure social and material environment for philosophers. Some rules encourage moral discipline, so that mind is not distracted by physical appetites. Some laws symbolically teach metaphysical truths. Hebrew edition of Judah Halevi's Kuzari, Berlin 1795 •
Maimonides' Eschatology envisions an enlightened society ruled by a philosophical Messiah. Maimonides' Tomb
Judah Halevi
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Major philosophical work: Kuzari, a fictitious dialogue which describes how the king of the Khazars chose Judaism over other religions. Employs philosophical argumentation to demonstrate the inadequacy of philosophy as a means to spiritual fulfilment. Prefers historical arguments to metaphysical ones: The truth of Judaism is proven by the people's unbroken memory of the revelation at Mount Sinai. Argues for the unique metaphysical quality of the Jewish people and Land of Israel. Mysticism General topics:
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Judaism did not have a separate category of mysticism (i.e., the quest for a direct experience of the divine). More of a distinction between exoteric and esotereic expressions of religion. "Kabbalah" is often used as a synonym for "Jewish mysticism" throughout history. This is awkward, since it is not clear that Kabbalah is really mystical. More precisely, Kabbalah refers to a specific doctrine (of the Ten Sefirot) that is first attested in the late medieval era. Other Jewish ideologies were more mystical than Kabbalah, especially the philosophical schools, which strove to elevate the soul towards a pure, contemplative experience of the divine. •
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All Jewish ideologies, including (especially?) Kabbalah and mysticism, are based on the standard orthodox model of observing the commandments. Medieval interpretations of Judaism accept earlier formulations: Bible and Talmudic literature. They claim to provide the authentic, deeper understanding of those traditions. Ancient Jewish Mysticism
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Talmudic references to the Work of the Chariot [Hebrew: Ma'aseh Merkavah]: esoteric practice based on the imagery of Ezekiel 1‐2, Isaiah 6: Visions of angels praising God, described as a king enthroned on a chariot made up of angels. The details or content of Chariot mysticism could not be taught openly, so we know virtually nothing about it. Post‐Talmudic texts describe mystical ascents through levels of palaces‐‐Hebrew: Heikhalot‐‐to reach the highest‐‐seventh‐‐level that houses the Chariot. Scholars disagree whether these texts reflect the mysticism that was practiced during Talmudic times. Sefer Yetzirah: Describes how God created the universe by combining the ten decimal numbers and the twenty‐two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The term used to designate numbers‐‐Sefirot was adapted by the Kabbalah to designate emanated divine powers. Ashkenazic Hasidism
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Best‐known compendium: The Book of the Pious. Belief in secret mystical tradition conveyed from Babylonia via Italy by the Kalonymos family. Focus on finding meaning in the text of the liturgy: Counting words and letters, numerology, etc. Incorporates traditional Ashkenazic concern with precision in liturgical customs. Meditations on "Holy Cherub," "Glory," intermediary figure analogous to Philonic Logos; apparently influenced by Saadia Gaon. Emphasis on minimizing importance of worldly affairs, in favour of focus on the afterlife. Ideal personality of the Hasid: pious person. Provided strong motive for martyrdom under persecution, especially during the Crusades. Kabbalah
Sefer Ha-Bahir [the Book of Radiance]
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First book of "real" Kabbalah; i.e., to employ symbolism of Ten Sefirot as divine attributes (as distinct from Sefer Yetzirah'). Keneset Israel (midrashic personification of the Jewish people) is equated with the Sheikhinah, the Divine Presence, though in rabbinic tradition they were two distinct concepts. Sefer Ha‐Bahir is unstructured and apparently incomplete, though it appears to have been so since its first appearance. Author and origin unknown. It appeared in Provence in the late12th century. It seems to have been composed shortly before that. Portions appear to have been compiled by the German Pietists, who appear to have made use of "Oriental" sources, notably the "Raza Rabba." The Zohar:
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Composed (principally, at least) by Rabbi Moses de Leon of Guadalajara, Spain, around 1280‐86. The Zohar may have been the work of a "school" of kabbalists, incorporating heterogeneous traditions. Literary character:
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Claims to be midrash from Talmudic era, to Pentateuch, Song of Songs, Ruth and Lamentations. Claimed to be copied from ancient manuscript in his possession. Adoption of Aramaic dialect of Targums (ancient Biblical translations), rather than more familiar dialect of the Babylonian Talmud. Narrative structure: School of mystics led by Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai wander about Gallilean countryside exchanging secret interpretations."Exotic" characters; e.g., "Yanuka" the child prodigy. "Zoharic Literature"‐‐ Later works presented as sections of the Zohar and incorporated into most editions of the Zohar : Ra'ayah Meheimana and >Tiqqunim present radical (by the same unidentified author) present a radical positions that challenges the legitimacy of non‐Kabbalistic streams of Judaism. The Teachings of the Kabbalah: The Ten Sefirot
God is ultimately unknowable to humans. The Ein Sof (Infinite) is rarely discussed in Kabbalistic texts. o God reveals himself to the world through ten Sefirot, representing different attributes ascribed to him in traditional iterature. o When read according to the esoteric Kabbalistic hermeneutic, the Bible and other sacred texts can be seen as referring to the interactions between the Sefirot. Differing names of God allude to different Sefirot. Biblical personalities embody different Sefirot (e.g.: Solomon = Wisdom; Leah = Understanding; Abraham = Lovingkindness; Isaac = Judgment). o The Sefirot are the instruments through which God created the universe. o Humans can influence the upper realms through their behaviour, depending on whether or not they observe the commandments in the proper way. Righteous actions allow the uninterrupted flow of divine goodness into our world. Sin produces obstructions to that flow. o The harmony in the celestial realms is ultimately dependent on human action. Humans can affect God! o Reinterpretation of classic tension between God's "Standard of Justice" and "Standard of Mercy." Justice equated with the left, female side of the Sefirot: o
The destructive poser of God, associated with separation and disharmony, stopping the flow of blessings into our world. Connection to Satanic realm. Mercy equated with right, male side of the Sefirot, allowing the harmonious flow of goodness. Recognition that a balance between extremes of mercy and justice (represented by "middle column," the Sefirah of Tif'eret) is the ideal. o Reinterpretation of Rabbinic concept of the Shekhinah, the divine presence in the world. Equated with the tenth Sefirah and with the community of Israel. Romantic metaphor: Shekhinah is beautiful princess, the upper Sefirot portrayed as King. The situation of Exile portrayed as separation between the lovers. Correlation between historical exile of Israel and a dissonance in the metaphysical realm. Eschatological implications: Redemption of Israel is bound in with the restoration of divine unity. This contributed to the proliferation of Kabbalah‐based messianic movements, such as that of Shabbetai Zvi. To read about the ten sefirot of the Kabbalah and their symbolism click
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/Sefirot/Sefirot.htmlhere.
Modern Judaism
Hassidism Rabbi Israel Ba'al Shem Tov (c. 1700-1760)
Background: Demoralization of Russian Jewry
The conventional account in standard histories explains the rise of
Hasidism as a response to the difficult plight of Eastern European
Jews in his time:
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Terrible massacres decimated the community: o 1648‐‐Cossack massacres led by Bogdan Chmielnicki murdered about half the Jewish population of Ukraine and Poland. o
o
1654‐‐Polish massacres. 1768‐‐Russian peasant revolts •
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Widespread poverty, excessive taxation Class divisions: Jewish communal leadership unresponsive to needs of poor. Traditional Talmudic religion provided insufficient consolation or inspiration for masses in times of crisis. Fierce resistance to Hasidism by advocates of traditional Talmudic learning. Ban of excommunication by Rabbi Elijah the Ga'on of Vilna. Opponents of Hasidism known as Misnagdim. Note: Recent studies demonstrate that the grim situation described above did not apply to
the region of Podolia, where the Ba'al Shem Tov lived. Podolia was enjoying an economic
recovery, under relatively stable political regimes. The Jews were not subject to notable
persecution of hardships. Therefore, the conventional portrayal of the Ba'al Shem Tov's
movement as a response to suffering is very questionable.
Life
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Note: Much of the biographical information about him must be extrapolated from the immense quantities of legendary traditions that were woven around him. Legend describes him as a "hidden" mystic unappreciated by his neighbours. Recent evidence indidates he was a respected figure in his community. His expertise in medicinal herbs earned him a reputation as a "ba'al shem"‐‐healer, magician. As he practiced his healing craft he also began to preach his religious teachings. c. 1736‐‐Hasidic legend speaks of the Besht publicly revealing his mission at the age of 36. He did not originate Hasidism. Pietistic individuals and circles were common in the region at the time. These figures were known for their high level of personal spirituality, usually based on Kabbalistic teachings. The main difference between the previous Hasidism and the Ba'al Shem Tov's approach lay in the latter's rejection of asceticism and self‐denial. He spread his teachings effectively by means of simple stories and parables that appealed to the uneducated Jewish masses. Principal Teachings
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Priority of emotion over intellect: simple piety over Talmudic erudition Overwhelming consciousness of God's Immanence, even in outwardly simple objects and actions. Appreciation of God in nature. The experience of the Divine is thus accessible to all. Joy at consciousness of a loving, ever‐present Creator. Appropriate mood for worship is happiness; suffering impedes a proper relationship with God. Effective antidote to the demoralization of Polish and Russian Jewry. Encouraged singing, dancing, story‐telling, drinking, etc. "Restoration" of songs and stories as mystical and spiritual acts. •
Emphasis on the importance of sincere prayer Two important mystical ideals of prayer: 1. Devekus ("clinging"; constant devotion): The unceasing consciousness of God's presence. Related to pantheistic approach: Nothing in the world is empty of the Divine. 2. Hislahavus ("bursting into flame"; ecstatic enthusiasm): The experience of spiritual exultation as the soul is elevated towards God. Celebrated sincere devotion over mechanical recitation of the liturgy. Participation of all limbs and forms of expression in worship: through gesticulation, dance, song, etc. •
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Messianism and Eschatology: Scholarly disagreement about the importance of Messianic aspirations in the doctrines of the Ba'al Shem Tov. G. Scholem: He intentionally tried to neutralize the eschatological themes, reinterpreting them as processes that take place internally spiritual processes. Ideal of indiscriminate solidarity and love for all fellow Jews. Development of Movement
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Following the Besht's death, Hasidism developed a model of local charismatic leadership. Allowed common folks to achieve vicarious fulfilment through devotion to a righteous saint: Tzaddik (or: Rebbe) Different Hasidic movements evolved distinctive models of spirituality based on the personalities of their leaders. Modern Judaism
Emancipation Definition:
The legal process, which began in Europe with the French Revolution, of granting to the Jews equal civic rights in the countries in which they reside. By Extension:
The whole cultural and social movement promoting directly and indirectly Jewish integration. Causes:
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Rise of nation‐state and mercantilism. People were valued for their individual contributions to the national treasury. Liberal philosophy: Ideals of equality must be applied equally, even to Jews. Implications of Emancipation:
Rights:
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It offered Jews rights as individuals. Previously they had enjoyed rights as a group.
The cost:
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The Jews were expected to give up their communal, cultural and national identities. The Ideological Expression of Emancipation = "Enlightenment." The Religious Expression of Emancipation = "Reform." Challenges to traditional Jewish religious ideas:
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Messianism and National redemption
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Often equated with ideals of Emancipation and Enlightenment, universal brotherhood, etc. •
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Hope for restoration to homeland
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Perception of Galut (exile).
Ties to Jews in other countries. o Question of "dual loyalties." o
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"Mission" theory of Jewish exile. Ideas of religious evolution and progress.
Tension between universalism and need to proclaim superiority of
Judaism.
Use of Hebrew.
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Jewish legal autonomy as a religious value.
Religion would now be treated only as a matter of individual belief.
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Less emphasis on practice and observance. Transformation of Rabbi into clergyman. New emphasis on Bible.
Anti-Jewish assumptions in European society
It was assumed by Christians that the Jews were a backward, materialistic people, lacking culture and spirituality. o Introduction of reforms in religous practice in order to conform to the aesthetic standards of the host society. ƒ Some felt that this was a result of the Jews' forcible segregation, and would be remedied once Jews were permitted access to more advanced ideas and culture. ƒ Jews often accepted these stereotypes, and felt the need to improve themselves, in order to be worthy of acceptance by the host society. ƒ Demand for vocational retraining of Jews, often based on the assumption that the Jewish concentration on banking was part of their religion! ƒ It was widely assumed that European liberal Protestant culture was the embodiment of universal enlightenment. o
Some issues addressed by
Napoleon's Assembly of Jewish
Notables:
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A bronze medal depicting Napoleon Jewish acceptance of secular law: civil divorce, polygamy, authority of rabbis and religious courts. Jewish attitudes towards gentiles: Intermarriage. Loyalty to their country. Economic participation: Status of money‐lending as a Jewish profession. presenting the tablets of the new laws to a submissive and grateful Moses Click here
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Sanhedrin.html
to read the full transcript of the Assembly of Jewish Notables
The Enlightenment Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza
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Spinoza took the medieval rationalist approach to its extreme conclusions: No need for religion. Philosophy alone led to virtue. • Traditional religion was only for the unenlightened, who needed the consolation of faith, piety, and the Holy Scriptures. • God is not the personal or transcendental. Rather, Spinoza conceived of God as deus sive natura, "God who equals nature." ‐‐> God is no more than the totality of the physical universe, not something that transcends it. Tractatus Theologico‐Politicus: Pioneered critical approach to study of Bible. Challenged belief in unified, revealed Torah.. Spinoza argued that the laws and doctrines of the Torah had no objective validity, but served the political objective of disciplining the Hebrew who had recently been released from slavery. Spinoza was declared a heretic by the rabbis of Amsterdam in his day and excommunicated. He was seen by many Jews as a prototypical heretic or atheist. Click here
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/SpinozaTractatus.html
to read a section from Spinoza's Theological-Political Tractate
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-86)
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Biographical background
A traditionally observant Jew from Dessau who also excelled as a philosopher and prominent literary figure in Berlin societ. o Advocates of the Enlightenment used him as an proof for their claim that even Jews could be civilized and noble if permitted access to o
European culture. Gottfried Lessing had described a figure like Mendelssohn in his play Nathan der Weise). o Liberal Christians claimed that their religion embodied the values of universalism, rationalism and enlightenment. Judaism was presumed to be materialistic and parochial. Mendelssohn was challenge by Johann Lavater to either refute Christianity or convert. o Mendeslssohn responded by writing Jerusalem, a plea for religious tolerance and separation of church and state: •
Mendelssohn's Philosophy of Judaism
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Religious beliefs are derived from reason and science. ‐‐> There cannot be beliefs that are specific to a particular religion. ‐‐> There is no such thing as revealed theology, or Jewish belief. The Torah is not a book of belief, but of "revealed legislation." As such, it is an internal matter for Jews and is of no interest to other peoples. Seen this way, Judaism is actually more universalistic than Christianity. Judaism requires only that gentiles accept the teachings of the Noachide commanements. Christianity claims that salvation is possible only through faith in Christ. Click here
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/MendeslssohnJerusalem.html
to read passage from Jerusalem
Mendelssohn's Programme to reform Judaism:
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Opposition to use of Herem (ban of excommunication, the principal means of the Rabbis' control over the Jewish community). Weakening of central authority accelerates rise of factionalism. Education of the Jewish masses: o Translation of the Bible into German (in Hebrew letters). o New Hebrew Bible Commentary. o Hebrew Journals Modern Judaism
Reform Judaism Religious response to the Emancipation:
Reform Judaism proposed changes in the religion that would facilitate Jews' participation in the
general society.
Note: In contrast to Eastern European Jews, the options in Western or Central Europe were:
1. Reforming the religion 2. Converting to Christianity. Early Reform (c. 1790-1830)
The first phase of reform was a lay initiative. Emphasis on features that would impede the
acceptance of Jews as individuals and as a group into European society.
Example: Israel Jacobson (1768-1828) of Seescen Westaphalia
: Wealthy financier who established private synagogues in
Seesen (1810) and Hamburg (1818) according to modern
standards.
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Israel Jacobson (1768‐1828) Return to Zion Restoration of sacrificial cult Removal of halakhic restrictions to participation in general society. o
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Esthetic changes in Jewish worship (often in imitation of practices in Christian churches) o Shorter service: Removal of obsolete items (e.g., piyyut [liturgical poetry]. o Vernacular (usually German) sermons on theological themes o Confirmation ceremonies (usually modeled after Christian catechisms) o Decorum in synagogue o Instrumental and choral music o Redefinition of Rabbi's role: Theologian and Pastor Deletion of theologically problematic passages from prayers: (‐‐Motive: Ideological or political?) •
Called for removal (or reinterpretation) of elements in religions (especially liturgy) that were not in keeping with ideals of Emancipation. o e.g.: negation of "exile." Justifications for changing traditional practices:
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Distinction between goals (primarily theological) and means (specific rituals, etc.). Conviction that their current situation was radically different from previous eras. Never before had Jews been treated as equals in an enlightened society. •
Countered by extreme positions of traditionalists: All change is illegitimate. o Involvement of government in internal Jewish conflict. Reform finds Leaders, becomes a Movement
Characteristics of Second Generation:
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Abraham Geiger Involvement of scholars and rabbis. Important figures: Abraham Geiger, Samuel Holdheim Broad range of opinions, from traditionalist (e.g., A. Geiger) to radicals (e.g., S. Holdheim). Justified changes by means of: o Evolutionary conception of Jewish religion ƒ Alliance with Wissenschaft des Judentums movement. ƒ E.g. Leopold Zunz's studies of history of Jewish preaching and names ‐‐ intended to justify introduction of sermons, adoption of European names. ƒ Issues discussed at Synods included: ƒ Formulation of Jewish creed. ƒ Sabbath. ƒ Dietary laws. ƒ
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Liturgical references to restoration of Temple and return to Israel. Use of Hebrew in prayers. Extra days of festivals. Waves of Jewish Immigration
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1654‐1800: Sepharadic Jews: Traditional, but very assimilated to American norms. 1824‐94: German Jews: Spurred by failure of liberalism in Germany (1848 uprisings) and quest for Leopold Zunz economic opportunities. 1880‐1920: Immense wave of Eastern European Jews escaping Russian persecution. Strong ethnic Jewish identity. 1920‐50: More traditional Jews escaping fascist anti‐semitism and Holocaust; refugees. Developments in American Reform
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Religious leadership of German immigrants reflected radical wing of European Reform movement. Isaac Meir Wise (1819‐1900): Founded main institutions: 1. Union of American Hebrew Congregations 2. Hebrew Union College 3. Central Conference of American Rabbis Pittsburgh Platform (1885) Reflecting radical Reform views:
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Rejection of binding force of all religious law, including the Torah. Denied Jewish peoplehood and nationalism. Rejection of non‐religious formulations of Judaism Click here to read the full text of the Pittsburgh Platform
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/PittsburgPlatform.html
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Columbus Platform (1937) Reflects extreme about‐face on several issues: ƒ Strong support for Jewish nationalism and Zionist movement. ƒ More positive attitude towards religious law and observance. ƒ More positive attitude towards cultural, non‐religious expressions of Judaism. ƒ Emphasis on observance outside the synagogue, especially in the home and school. ƒ Advocates use of Hebrew (alongside vernacular). Click here to read the full text of the Columbus Platform
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/COLUMBUS_PLATFORM.html
The tendencies found in the Columbus Platform were given stronger
expression in later platforms.
Modern Judaism
Positive­Historical Judaism Positive-Historical [Conservative] Judaism
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Zacharias Frankel Breslau Reform Conference 1846: Zacharias Frankel withdrew over issue of Hebrew in liturgy. Objected to Reformers' disregard for historical continuity and nationalism. Proposes programme for Positive Historical Judaism. o Combination of commitment to Jewish Halakhah and rational faith. o Authority of Jewish law rests on its use by Jews over the generations. o Human need for concrete symbols, not just abstract ideas. o Encouraged Wissenschaft, but rejected Biblical criticism. Human origins of Oral Torah (Mishnah). Click here
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/ZFrankel.html to read Frankel's essay
"On Changes in Judaism"
Conservative Judaism in America
Distinguishing features:
Emphasis on religion as a function of peoplehood. Belief in organic evolution of law and belief. Identification with American liberal values. Emphasis on ethical dimensions of halakhah. Embraces all aspects of Jewish culture and civilization (including literature and art). o Consistent support for Jewish nationalist movement, statehood. o Halakhic pluralism: Committee on Law and Standards gives sanction to minority positions. Autonomy of individual synagogues. More lenient rulings become widespread. o
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Establishment of Jewish Theological Seminary of America:
For the preservation in America of the knowledge and practice of historical Judaism as ordained in the law of Moses expounded by the prophets and sages in Israel in Biblical and Talmudic writings. 1898‐‐ Break with conservative (Eastern European) Orthodoxy. 1902-Successful establishment of JTS in New York, financed by established Reform Jews. Why? Leadership of Solomon Schechter.
Faculty included some of the leading
Jewish scholars of the world.
Institutional Evolution of
Conservative Movement:
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Rabbinical association: Rabbinic Assembly Synagogue federation‐‐
national: United Synagogues of America Synagogue federation‐‐
international: World Union of Synagogues Solomon Schechter Youth movement: United Synagogue Youth Women's organization: Women's League Men's organization: Federation of Jewish Men's Clubs Teachers' College Cantorial School Cantors' Assembly Jewish Museum Jerusalem Campus Camp Ramah Solomon Schechter Day Schools Issues related to status of women:
"Family seating" in synagogue. Retroactive annulment of marriages‐‐1968. Counting of women in prayer quorum (minyan) and granting them Aliyyot to read Torah‐‐1973. o Ordination of women as rabbis‐‐1977‐79. o
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Basic Concepts from
S. Daniel Breslauer, Understanding Judaism through History
Modern Judaism
Neo­Orthodoxy The term "Orthodoxy" is applied to Jewish traditionalist movements that resisted the European
Emancipation and Enlightenment.
The adjective "Orthodox"appears to have been first applied derisively to Jewish conservatives by
a Reform polemicist in an article published in 1795.
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch commented bitterly in 1854 that
...it was not "Orthodox" Jews who introduced the word "orthodox" into Jewish discussion. It was the modern "progressive" Jews who first applied the name to "old," "backward" Jews as a derogatory term. This name was at first resented by "old" Jews. And rightfully so... By 1886, when Hirsch established the "Freie Vereinigung für die Interessen des Orthodoxen
Judentums" (Free Union for the Interests of Orthodox Judaism)!
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-1888)
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Early in his career he appears to have adopted the "Reform" style: Clerical robes, use of choir, shaved beard, sermons in German, encouraged study of the Bible, opposed Talmudic "hairsplitting" dialectics (pilpul), abolished Kol Nidré Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (ceremony for annulment of vows on Yom Kippur). • 1836‐‐Published The Nineteen Letters [Hebrew title: Iggerot Tzafon ("Northern Letters")], a fictitious exchange of letters between a master (the young Rabbi‐philosopher Naphtali) and a young intellectual (Benjamin) upholding the rationality of traditional Judaism. • 1838‐‐Published Choreb, a rational explanation of the 613 commandments of the Torah. • 1841‐‐Moved to Emden as "Landesrabbiner." Conducted campaign against Reform. First formulated his doctrine of "Torah im Derekh Eretz," the combination of Torah and secular culture. • 1846‐‐Appointed chief Rabbi of Moravia, Austria. Moves to Nikolsburg. • 1848‐‐Actively and successfully campaigned before Austrian Parliament for Jewish legal emancipation. • Resigns his prestigious office to accept the leadership of the beleagurered traditionalist community (Adass Yeshurun) in Frankfort a. M. •
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Initiated withdrawal of the minority Orthodox community from the general Jewish "Gemeind" that was dominated by the Reform. Hirsch's first priority was to establish religious schools. Works to strengthen traditional religious institutions. Hirsch's community becomes model for similar projects in Mainz, Darmstadt, Berlin. 1867‐78‐‐Composed his Commentary on the Pentateuch, developed his symbolic exegetical approach. 1871‐3‐‐Hirsch fought to have the Orthodox minority recognized by the Prussian government as separate congregations. 1876‐‐Prussian parliament passes "Law of Secession (Austritt)" allowing creation of independent traditionalist communities. 1885‐6‐‐Founded the "Freie Vereinigung für die Interessen des Orthodoxen Judentums" (Free Union for the Interests of Orthodox Judaism), an alliance of traditionalist Jewish communities throughout Europe. 1888‐‐Died in Frankfort a. M. Main Teachings
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Torah im Derekh Eretz
Integration of traditional Judaism with secular education (equated with German literature
and culture).
Believed that "style" and externals could be changed, but did not allow major changes in Jewish religious law or traditional beliefs. o Ideal of "Israel‐Mensch": Enlightened religious personality. o Established schools on modern lines. Divine Origins of Torah
o Emphasis on total Divinity of Torah, even where we cannot completely understand it. o Jewish religious law is not subject to historical development or change. o Opposed historical model of religious development. o Humanity requires history in order to evolve towards a recognition of "Truth." However Israel was given the truth from the start. Exegetical Method
o "Speculative etymology" as means to explain the reasons for the Biblical precepts. o The commandments contain symbolic teachings. Jewish Peoplehood
o Generally ambivalent attitude towards Jewish nationalism, Zionism: Remained completely loyal to the German state. o Regarded Torah as the ultimate purpose of Jewish peoplehood. o Encouraged retention of Hebrew in order to insure continuity and uniformity of Jews in different lands. o
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The ideal of voluntary membership in Jewish communities brought about changes in the role of the Rabbi and the process of legal decisions: The Rabbi only had to speak for those who had chosen to accept his authority, therefore law could be interpreted and applied in a much more demanding and stringent manner. Click here
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/SRHirsch.html
to read Hirsch's essay "Religion Allied to Progress"
The major groupings of Orthodoxy from its inception until the present day are represented in the
following diagram.
The term "Orthodoxy" is applied to Jewish traditionalist movements that have consciously resisted the influences of modernization that arose in response to the European Emancipation and Enlightenment movements. It is not usually employed to designate Jewish traditionalism prior to the modern era, nor does the phenomenon appear in communities that were unaffected by the Reform movement; e.g., in North Africa, or in Eastern Europe before the mid‐
nineteenth‐century. The adjective "Orthodox" ("correct belief") is taken from the conceptual world of Christianity,
where it denotes a conservative and ritualistic religious outlook, as viewed from the perspective
of liberal Protestantism. It appears to have been first applied derisively to Jewish conservatives
by a Reform polemicist in an article published in 1795.
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch commented bitterly in 1854 that
...it was not "Orthodox" Jews who introduced the word "orthodox" into Jewish discussion. It was the modern "progressive" Jews who first applied the name to "old," "backward" Jews as a derogatory term. This name was at first resented by "old" Jews. And rightfully so... Yet so pervasive was the use of the term that in 1886, when Hirsch established an alliance of the traditionalist congregations in Europe, he named it the "Freie Vereinigung für die Interessen des Orthodoxen Judentums" (Free Union for the Interests of Orthodox Judaism)! Of all the movements on the contemporary Jewish scene, Orthodoxy is the least centralized and
the most diverse. Whereas the Conservative and Reform movements in America each has a
single seminary, Rabbinical association and synagogue union, the Orthodox world is fragmented
into diverse institutional structures. Though they agree on basic issues of religious authority
(e.g., the divine origins of the Bible and Oral Tradition) and the commitment to the study and
observance of Jewish law, the halakhah as interpreted in a relatively inflexable manner,
Orthodox Jews diverge on a broad range of secondary issues, such as:
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the importance or legitimacy of mysticism policies towards Zionism and Jewish nationalism the eschatological status of the State of Israel educational philosophies leadership models cooperation with non‐Orthodox Jews differing ethnic styles etc. •
Hasidism http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Hasidism.html
• The Opposition to Hasidism: Misnagdim http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Misnagdim.html • Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch and Neo‐Orthodoxy http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Hirsch.html • Lithuanian Hasidism: Chabad Lubavitch http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Chabad.html • The Lithuanian Yeshivahs http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Lithuania.html • Rabbi Israel Salanter and the Musar (Ethical) Movement http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Musar.html • The Aguddat Israel Movement http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Aguddah.html • Orthodox Zionism http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Zionism.html • American "Centrist" Orthodoxy http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Centrist.html • Orthodox Anti‐Zionism: Naturei Karta http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Naturei.html • Rabbi Eliezer Shach and Lithuanian Anti‐Zionism http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Shach.html • Sepharadic Orthodox Movements http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Shas.html • Messianic Orthodoxy: Gush Emunim http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eelsegal/363_Transp/Orthodoxy/Gush.html Religious Responses to the Holocaust Significance of Terminology:
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Holocaust Shoah Hurban The slowness of the religious response:
General silence until 1966-67
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American Jewry's lack of confidence in raising "parochial" concerns. None is Too Many, While Six Million Died, "Hollywoodism" phenomenon. Systemic Antisemitism in Western society, tried to suppress knowledge [including Middle‐East‐related reasons]. American Jews' disconnection and ignorance of Judaism and Jewish affairs. Publication of Rubinstein's After Auschwitz; Fackenheim, Quest for Past and Future (cf. E. Wiesel: Night) Revived awareness of Holocaust
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Six‐Day War 1967. Yom Kippur War 1973. "Holocaust" television miniseries (1978) "Schindler's List" (1993). Transformation of Holocaust into central consensus of American Jewish identity. Problems with this situation. The question of ritual commemoration of the
Holocaust
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Related to questions of uniqueness within Jewish perspective. Is this just another (albeit more serious) pogrom, or something unprecedented. Yom Ha‐Shoah and relationship to Warsaw Ghetto uprising. "Ultra‐Orthodox" [Haredi] refusal to observe Yom Hashoah [replaced by 10th of Tevet; day to recite Kaddish for the unknown victims]. Israeli tendency to identify with partisans, but not with victims [Change of attitude in 1973]. Eschatological implicaitons of sequence of modern commemorative dates 1. Yom Ha‐Shoah. 2. ‐‐> Independence Day. 3. ‐‐> Jerusalem Liberation Day. Eschatological implications of Holocaust as "birthpangs of Messiah." Leo Baeck (1873-1956)
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Leo Baeck Prominent Berlin Reform rabbi and theologian Deported to Theresienstadt concentration camp in 1943, where he was distinguished for the spiritual guidance and inspiration he gave to the inmates. Pre‐Holocaust work The Essence of Judaism presents a "conventional" interpretaiton of Judaism as ethical monotheism. Strongly influenced by Hermann Cohen. His post‐Holocaust work This People Israel focuses on the miraculous dimensions of the survival of Judaism as a voice of rational morality in an irrational world. Elie Wiesel (1928-)
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From strict Hasidic background in Romania, deprted to Auschwitz at age 15. Novels describe bleak, unspeakable evil of Auschwitz. Later in his life he focuses increasingly on vital richness of Jewish tradition, especially Hasidism. Practical lessons of Holocaust: o Support for Israel and oppressed Jewish communities ("Jews of Silence" in Soviet Union) Eli Wiesel o
Advocacy of Human Rights causes. Eliezer Berkovits (1908-82)
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Traditionalist interpretation of Holocaust. Occasion for heroic martydom, in line with previous responses to persecutions in Jewish history. The spiritual attitude with which a Jew faces death can be a religious act. Although the Holocaust was the greatest catastrophe in its proportions, it was not unique in its quality. Contrary to the traditional Jewish response to catastrophes, the Holocaust should be ascribed to Jewish sins. It is a profound mystery, a "hiding of God's countenance." God's failure to interfere with human evil is a condition of human free will. The correct response to the Holocaust is to reaffirm the vitality of traditional Judaism and Zionism. Emil Fackenheim (1916-2003)
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Was distinguished German philosopher before the War, authority on Hegel. Devoted most of his work after the Holocaust to Jewish issues. Spoke of the uniqueness (or unprecedentedness) of the Holocaust. The 614th commanemdment: Not to give Hitler a posthumous victory by allowing Judaism to die. The survival of Jews and Judaism are a central religious imperative. ‐‐> Support for the state of Israel is a necessary response to the Holocaust. Emil Fackenheim Richard Rubenstein
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Argued that Holocaust shattered the main beliefs of traditional Judaism. It is no longer possible to believe in an all‐powerful, benevolent God who guides history. • It is no longer possible to believe in the covenant between God and the Jewish people. Argued for less emphasis on historical dimentions of Jewish theology, and rediscovery of God in nature. Jews must learn to utilize power in order to survive. Current Developments in Judaism
Israel
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The pre‐state roots of religious and religious‐secular tension: The old and the new Yeshuvs; religious anti‐Zionism. Religious Zionism: Alkalai, Kalischer Reines, Mohilever, Kook, the Mizrachi movement. The place of religion in the secular state: • the "status quo" • religious legislation. • the "Who is a Jew?" controversies. • religious parameters of the Israel Defense Force. • Judaism and Israeli civil religion. The evolution of Haredi Judaism in Israel: Hasidism, Yeshivah culture, Aguddat Israel. Gush Emunim: messianic nationalism; the settler movement. Responses to Rabin assassination, Oslo, Gaza disengagement. The religious left: Happoel Hamizrachi; from Brit Shalom to Netivot Shalom / Meimad. The "Orthodox establishment" and liberal streams of Judaism; Israeli Judaism and the diaspora. Religion as an instrument of ethnic and social protest: The rise of Sepharadic ultra‐
orthodoxy (the Shas party and its constituency). America
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Polarization between extreme traditionalists and liberals‐‐ decline of "classical" •
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Conservative Judaism. Decline in Jewish population‐‐ infertility, intermarriage. Rise of Jewish Renewal movement. Crises in Jewish education. Differing trajectories betweeen Judaism in America and Israel.
Jewish Beliefs
The Belief in One God •
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Biblical belief in one God outside of nature was radically different from prevailing Near Eastern religions. Daily ritual declaration of the Shema' (Deuteronomy 6:4 ff.): "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one." •
Implies belief in common humanity: "And you shall love your neighbour as yourself"--Rabbi Akiva says: This is a
great principle in the Torah.
Ben Azai says: "This is the book of the generations of mankind"--this is an even
greater principle.
Jerusalem Talmud Nedarim •
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Rejection of polytheism.
Rejection of idolatry (worship of physical representations of God) Rejection of Dualism (belief in independent power of absolute evil). [‐‐> implications re: Satan] Implications re: Christian beliefs in incarnation, trinity. Medieval philosophical formulations of monotheism--based
on Greek and Muslim concepts of divine unity:
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God is not only one (i.e., not one of many deities), but also not composite. ‐‐> Problem of multiple divine attributes [Saadiah: a function of limited human intelligence and language, but the multiplicity does not exist in God]. Maimonides: Two kinds of attributes may be used in legitimate religious discourse: 1. Attributes of action: Metaphoric analogy between result and "motive." 2. Negative theology: Denial of the attribute's opposite: e.g.: We cannot understand what God's "wisdom" really is; but we can deny any ignorance or stupidity in God. Kabbalah:
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Problematic status of ten Sefirot: Are they part of God or emanations from God? Modern developments:
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Some denominations have proposed non‐theistic or non‐supernatural formulations of Jewish theology: Mordecai Kaplan in Reconstructionism; Jewish Humanism. Divine Transcendence and Immanence
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Traditional Judaism perceived God as both exalted beyond human comprehension‐‐ and intimately involved in the world and in human affairs. Rabbinic concept of Shekhinah‐‐the divine presence in the world. Philosophical concepts of an intermediary power between God and the material creation: Logos (Philo); "Glory of God" (Saadiah, Hasidei Ashkenaz); etc. Kabbalistic depiciton of Shekhinah as the lowest of the Sefirot‐‐the Princess exiled from the Prince. God's Eternity
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Fundamental biblical belief in a God who preceded the universe and brought it into being. Philosophical reformulations: Time only exists as a measure of physical motion, and therefore the concept makes no sense before the creation. Question of the eternity of matter. God as outside of time. Divine Omnipotence
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Ancient sources express a naive confidence in God's absolute control over all things and events, including the ability to suspend the laws of nature: Miracles. Medievals dealt with limitations of that belief; e.g., can God do things that are logically impossible? Most said not. Maimonides believed that God can be known largely through the eternal laws of nature‐
‐ Therefore he was reluctant to acknowledge miracles that weakened the natural laws. Problem of Evil: [especially in Holocaust theology] o E. Berkovits, D. Birnbaum: God cannot interfere to stop human evil, because of principle of free will. o Non‐traditional theologians call for radical reformulations of theology. Divine Omniscience:
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Traditional sources assume that God knows everything, including future events and human thoughts. Medieval philosophical problem: If God know all the details of the creation, does this violate the principle of divine unity? Maimonides: God know the creation only insofar as he is the source of all existence. o Gersonides: God knows only in general terms‐‐but not the details of the universe or human decisions. o
Creation:
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Biblical description of God creating the universe out of nothing in six days, by declaration: "Let there be..." Rabbis speculated on question of whether there were pre‐existant materials from which God created the world. Medieval philosophy: Aristotle was understood to have proven that matter had existed from eternity, and could not have been created out of nothing. Maimonides: The question cannot be proven scientifically, so the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo should be preferred tentatively, because it affirms God's control over the creation. If the contrary were to be proven, then the Bible's account can be reinterpreted accordingly. Angels: Belief in invisible creatures and divine messengers was almost universal in pre‐
modern times, as in biblical and rabbinic literature. Medieval rationalists interpreted angels as Aristotelian "separate intelligences." Modern Jews tend to understand them as metaphors. Providence
Traditional views
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Biblical and rabbinic religion presumed that God takes an active personal interest in guiding all of creation. Both nature and history are governed by divine providence. Historical providence guides Israel and the world to a future redemption: Messianic era. Medievals
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Maimonides and other philsophers adopted Aristotelian view that distinguished between a general providence over species (preventing them from extinction) and individual providence over humans. Maimonides: the extent of the providence is proportional to the person's intellectual attainments. Crescas and others disagreed. •
Medieval philosophers discussed the apparent contradiction between divine foreknowledge and human free will. Most insisted that the two principles are not really contradictory. Divine Goodness and Theodicy
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Biblical belief in a benevolent God who wants to bestow blessings on the world. Some later works (especially Job and Ecclesiastes) raise the question of undeserved suffering. Rabbinic texts stress that God is the source of (apparent?) evil as well as good. Medievals deal with the "problem of evil": How can an all‐powerful and beneficent God allow evil in the universe? o Maimonides: Evil is not a reality, but only the absence of good. Humans do not see God's larger scheme, so we are unqualified to judge the ultimate extent of evil. o Kabbalah: ƒ Equated evil with disharmony and division in the realm of the Sefirot, leading to interruptions in the flow of blessings into our world. ƒ Evil is associated with the strengthening of God's aspect of strict justice (the Left Side). ƒ Kabbalistic tradition speaks in graphic terms of a satanic realm‐‐the Other Side (Sitra Ahra). In some systems there is an entire evil parallel "universe" with its own ten Sefirot. ƒ Lurianic Kabbalah: Evil is explained through the myth of the "breaking of the vessels": When the Ein Sof tried to project its light into primordial vessels, they were unable to contain the light and shattered. Therefore, reality consists of a mixture of sparks of light (goodness) and broken shards (evil). Through the performance of religious commandments, the sparks are separated from the shards and "elevated" to their proper state of holiness. Post‐Holocaust theologians have generally avoided attempts to explain evil, especially in terms that would place blame on the victims. Introduction to Judaism Meanings of "Torah":
•
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Literal translations: Teaching. Instruction. Guidance The "Five Books of Moses" =Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) The physical parchment scroll on which the Torah is traditionally written. The Written Torah or The Oral Torah [=Rabbinic tradition embodied in the Talmuds and other works] The interpretations of Scripture through the ages The totality of Jewish teaching and life [="Judaism"] A Torah Scroll • Traditional Jewish belief is that the entire Torah was revealed letter‐for‐letter by God to Moses. Modern and non‐traditional denominations have accepted documentary and historical theories of its composition. The Structure of the Hebrew Bible: TaNaKh: TaNaKh A modern acronym used to designate the three main divisions of the Hebrew Bible Hebrew Name Other Renderings Translation Contents 1. Teaching, Instruction Five Books of Moses Pentateuch Law History of humanity from creation of world to death of Moses (before the Israelites' entry to Promised Land) Laws given to Israel at Mount Sinai through Moses 2. Prophets Historical Works ("Early Prophets"): History of Israel from conquest of Promised Land to Beginning of Second Torah Commonwealth Teachings (often in poetry) of "Prophets" Nevi'im 3. Ketuvim [Sacred] Writings Hagiographa Various types, usually later than other sections: •
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Prayers (Psalms) stories (Ruth, etc.) love poetry (Song of Songs) proverbs (Proverbs) philosophy and theology (Ecclesiastes, Job) history (Chronicles, Ezra‐Nehemiah) laments over Jerusalem (Lamentations) Apocalypse (Daniel) Manuscript of the Apocryphal work 'the Wisdom of Ben‐Sira' (Ecclesiasticus) from the Cairo Genizah, now in the Cambridge University library Miscellaneous terms and concepts:
Apocrypha
Literal meaning: "Hidden, secret"
Books that were contained in the ancient Greek versions of the Bible (in use primarily in Egypt),
but were not included in the accepted Hebrew edition of the Jewish sacred scriptures.
Covenant [Hebrew: B'rit(h)]:
Bilateral agreements‐‐between God and creation / creatures. Universal Covenants:
1. With nature: God promises to maintain the physical world [subject to humans maintaining moral standards]. 2. With Humanity: The seven laws of the children of Noah: 3. No murder 4. No sexual immorality 5. No idolatry 6. Not eating limbs from living animals 7. No blasphemy 8. No robbery 9. Obligation to administer justice. Stages of Israelite Covenant:
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Abraham: His children will be a nation, will be enslaved in a strange land, and return to inherit their land. Sinai: People must observe God's law as found in the commandments of the Torah: o 613 commandments (248 positive + 365 negative) David: The dynasty of King David will continue to rule over Israel in perpetuity o [‐‐> "Messianism"]. Rabbi:
An expert in Jewish religious law, qualified to interpret the authoritative texts, such as the Torah, Talmud and law codes, to render decisions on doubtful questions, and to serve as a judge on a religious court. Note that the function of a Rabbi has nothing to do with that of a Priest (Kohen). The latter is a descendent of Moses' brother Aaron whose main responsibilities relate to worship in the Jerusalem Temple. Jewish Peoplehood and Nationalism The Chosen People
Note that there is no Hebrew expression equivalent to the English term "chosen people."
The concept appears frequently in the liturgy, usually as a lead-up to "you have sanctified us
with your commandments and commanded us to do X."
--> The belief is that the special mission of Israel is defined by the performance of the
commandments of the Torah.
Belief tht Israel is to serve as a model to the world, of devotion, true belief, just society.
Diverse views of exile: As punishment for sins, or as opportunity to spread God's message to the
world.
Diverse explanations of why Israel was chosen to receive the Torah:
•
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No reason at all‐‐It was God's will. By virtue of Abraham's faith and righteousness. God offered the Torah to all the nations, but only Israel accepted it. • Use of romantic and sexual imagery to depict the relationship between God and Israel. In prophetic preaching, this often leads to the portrayal of Israel's backsliding as adulterous. Allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs as a complicated love affair between God and Israel. • Rabbinic and Kabbalistic stress on the Shekhinah as God's presence accompanying the Jews through their exiles and sharing in their suffering. • Jewish philosophers. Most rationalists lean towards universalistic models of human perfection. Some (especially Judah Halevi) insist that Israel has a unique religious faculty. • Modern Jewish movements were especially concerned to deny any implications of Jewish superiority of exclusiveness, • Messianic hopes are central to Jewish prayer and aspirations, and messianic movements have been a constant feature of Jewish history. The Promised Land
The Bible promises the land of Canaan to Abraham's descendents as part of the covenant.
After the Exodus, the Hebrew travel to the promised land and conquer it.
A key feature of Jewish exchatology is the ingathering of the exiles and the restoration of the
Land of Israel under the rule of an anointed king (Messiah) from the house of David.
Religious Reponses to
the Zionist Movement
Selected topics:
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The pre‐state roots of religious and religious‐secular tension: The old and the new Yishuvs ‐‐> Religious anti‐Zionism, the Netorai Karta movement. The beginnings of religious Zionism: Rabbis Alkalai, Kalischer, Reines, Mohilever, Kook, the Mizrachi movement. Scene from the Old Yishuv Rabbi Judah Alkalai Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer
(1798‐1878) (1795‐1874) Rabbi Jacob Reines (1839‐1915) Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook (1865‐1935) Some pioneers of religious Zionism •
•
Religious partners to left‐wing and Labour Zionism: Happoel Hamizrachi; from Brit Shalom to Netivot Shalom. Controversies surrounding the place of religion in the secular state: o The "status quo" o Religious legislation o The "Who is a Jew?" controversies o religious parameters of the Israel Defense Force ƒ The Hesder yeshivahs. o Gush Emunim: messianic nationalism; the settler movement. o Religion as an instrument of ethnic and social protest: The rise of Sepharadic ultra‐
orthodoxy (the Shas party and its constituency). o Forms and venues of religious scholarship in Israel. o Distinctive aspects of religious life in Israel. Some features of Jewish Eschatology
The word "Messiah"
Anointed‐‐A person whose hair has been smeared with oil. Part of the standard ritual for appointing a king The term is used to designate a Jewish ruler from the family of King David who will return in the future Biblical Prophecy and the Messianic Idea:
1. General Themes:
Source Belief Threats of approaching catastrophe if Israel fails to obey Catastrophic future: Punishment of God sinners. Consolation: Obedience to God will lead to rewards, perfect world. Utopian World Revenge on Israel's Enemies. Defeat of evil nations of the world. 2. Specific Themes:
Announcement by Elijah (Stated in Malachi 3:23 [4:5])
"War of Gog and Magog" (Described in Ezekiel 38‐9). Resurrection of the Dead Why then? The Afterlife •
•
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Bible says almost nothing about afterlife‐‐ Prospects of paradise or eternal torment are not invoked as motivations. Possibly, the editors wanted to discourage fixation on death (as was prevalent in Egypt). "she'ol" probably only means "grave" and does not refer to the abode of the deceased spirits. Resurrection emerges as distinctive doctrine‐‐first with Pharisees, later with Rabbis. o Implications for treatment of dead: Insistence on preservation of the body‐burial, not cremation. Rabbinic concepts: o World to Come: Used inconsistently, primarily to refer to Messianic era after resurrection of dead. o Gan Eden ["Garden of Eden", Paradise]: abode of righteous souls, immediately after death and / or after judgment. o
o
o
o
Gehinom [Gehenna]: Place of torment for the wicked. Usually depicted as temporary state (similar to Catholic Purgatory), after which most people will be admitted to Paradise. Rationalists often preferred model of spiritual or intellectual survival. Maimonides: Those who are resurrected will live out their new lives and die. Kabbalah teaches doctrine of gilgul: Souls are reincarnated into different bodies (not necessarily human) until they are worthy of admission to paradise. Modern theologians tend to minimize the importance of afterlife concerns, especially the belief in physical resurrection. Prayer and the Prayer Book •
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Traditional belief that God listens to prayer and responds. Most common Hebrew term is from a root meaning "judge" [PLL] in reflexive form. Bible does not describe or prescribe specific liturgy. Institutionalized worship focused on sacrifices. The initiation of 3 daily prayers was traditionally ascribed to the Patriarchs. o Shaharit, the morning prayer, initiated by Abraham as he set out to sacrifice Isaac. o Isaac started Minhah, the afternoon prayer. o Ma'ariv, the evening prayer, begun by Jacob as he fled from Esau. On the Early Evolution of Formal Prayer
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Second Temple era: rotation of lay participants with Priestly families (Anshe Maamad ‐‐
"Bystanders"). After fall of the Temple: synagogues evolved into center for communal prayer, as well as inheriting some of the Temple rites. Sacrifices could not be offered, but other rites (e.g., shofar) were transferred to the synagogue. Rabban Gamaliel II helped to reformulate the order, content, and sequence of the obligatory prayers. The prayer's specific wording, though, was still left up to the congregation's prayer leader. All prayers were in the plural, as the "messenger" spoke for the entire congregation. The congregation responded and identified with each prayer by saying "Amen" at the end of each one. It was not until several centuries later that the prayers were canonized in the first prayer book, based on the prayer brook of the Gaon Rav Amram. The Main Prayers of the Daily Services
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In addition to daily prayers (Shaharit, Minhah, and Ma'ariv), there are additional prayers for the Sabbath and holy days: Musaf "Additional" prayer corresponds to "Additional sacrifices." •
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At all the services the Kaddish, the Amidah, and the Alenu are recited. The Sh'ma is recited at the evening and morning services. Berakhah: The Blessing
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Basic structure: "Blessed are you, God, King of the Universe, who..." The berakhot are part of all communal synagogue prayers, as well as private prayer. Components of Daily Services
Evening Service
Morning Service
Afternoon Service
Ma'ariv
Shaharit
Minhah
Preliminary blessings, study
and Psalms
A. Shema:
Blessing A: Master of
Nature (Creator of light)
Preliminary Psalm (145)
A. Shema:
Blessing A: Master of
Nature (Creator of
evening)>
Blessing B: Loves Israel
<-- Revelation Torah
Text of Shema
The three paragraphs of the Shema': Deuteronomy 6:4‐9 ["Acceptance of the yoke of divine sovreignty"]; Deuteronomy 11: 13‐21 ["Acceptance of the yoke of the commandments"]; Numbers 15: 37‐41 ["Precept of fringes, remembering the Exodus from Egypt". Blessing C: Redemption
Blessing D: Protection at
night
B. "Eighteen Blessings"
Group A: Praises
Group B: Petitions
Group C: Thanks
Blessing <-- B: Loves
Israel Gave Torah
Text of Shema
The three paragraphs of the Shema': Deuteronomy 6:4‐9 ["Acceptance of the yoke of divine sovreignty"]; Deuteronomy 11: 13‐21 ["Acceptance of the yoke of the commandments"]; Numbers 15: 37‐41 ["Precept of fringes, remembering the Exodus from Egypt". Blessing C: Redemption
B. "Eighteen Blessings"
Group A: Praises
Group B: Petitions
Group C: Thanks
Penitential prayers
A. "Eighteen Blessings"
Group A: Praises
Group B: Petitions
Group C: Thanks
Penitential prayers
Reading from Torah (Monday
and Thursday)
The Shema serves to affirm god's covenant with the Jews as one people, liked to the One God.
Amidah: Petition ("standing")
•
The Amidah consists of 19 berakhot<, divided into three sections. 1. The first contains the praises of God 2. the second, the individual's and community's needs 3. the third thanks God. Additional components of the traditional liturgy:
Formal reading from the Torah is incorporated into some of the services.
Congregational prayer is introduced by a call to worship: "Bless the blessed
Lord" [Barekhu]
The Kaddish: Sanctification
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A very old prayer, the Kaddish serves as a conclusion of all the daily prayers,. andor sections of public worship. Alenu: Adoration
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Reflects the hope for a world where all humanity will worship God. Psalms are recited before
some services in order to
enter into the appropriate
mood.
The Synagogue: place
of prayer
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Although prayer is required of individuals, it is preferable to •
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worship as a community. Traditional definition of a "community" is: ten adult males [minyan]. Origins of the institution are unclear. Probably began during late Second Temple period. Earliest references speak of it as a place of public assembly for reading and expounding the Bible. In ancient times it also housed the elementary school. Few structural requirements: Should face towards Jerusalem, an "ark" to house and and a platform read the Torah. In traditional synagogues, men and women are seated separately (to avoid distraction). Dressing for Prayer
Certain special forms of dress for prayer serve as special, tangible reminders of belief and respect
for God:
Tallit
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The Torah requires fastening "tzitzit" (fringes or tassles) on the corners of one's garments. • Since cornered garments are rarely worn, special ones were developed for ritual use. • A small fringed garment (tallit qatan is worn as a kind of undershirt at all times. a larger shawl with fringes is worn over the clothing during prayer and worship. Tefillin
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The Torah commands: "And you shall bind them as a sign upon your hand, and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes." In ancient Jewish interpretation this was understood as a requirement to bind texts from the Torah on one's arm and forehead. • Small parchment scrolls, with words about the love of God on them, are encased in a small black parchment cube attached to a leather strap. • One of the tefillin wrapped around the left hand, the other attached high on the forehead, between the eyes. The tefillin serve as a visual reminder of the commandment to bind God's will and instruction upon oneself and one's actions The tefillin<> are worn during morning service on weekdays. The mezuzah, attached to the doorpost of a house, is another visual reminder ‐‐ this time to strive to make the house a sanctuary of God. Head covering
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Jewish men traditionally keep their heads covered out of reverence, especially when at prayer, in the synagogue, during religious study‐‐ or all the time for traditional Jewish men. Early sources mention this as a sign of special piety, but it became a standard custom. •
In traditional circles, married women are required to cover their hair for reasons of modesty. Introduction to Judaism The Jewish Calendar Basic Structure
The Bible speaks often of days, months and years, but does not
define them.
[Note that the "week" does not reflect a natural or astronomical
cycle, and is only found in Judaism or in cultures influenced by the Bible.]
During Second Temple era, we know of two main competing
calendar systems. The "Jubilees" calendar, advocated by the
Dead Sea sect consisted of twelve 30-day months with four
extra quarterly days, adding up to 364. Because the number is
divisible by 7, holidays would occur on the same day of the
week every year--and never on the Sabbath.
Viewing the New Moon (from a manual of Jewish customs, Amsterdam 1695) The Pharisees and Rabbis observed a version of the Babylonian calendar: Months are defined by
actual phases of moon: Approximately 29 1/2 days after previous new moon, adding up to 354
days.
Originally the New Moon was determined by actual testimony of witnesses to court (Sanhedrin).
Under the Patriarch Hillel II (mid-4th century) a calculated calendar was introduced.
Because most holidays relate to agricultural seasons [e.g., Passover must be in Spring;
Tabernacles at the ingathering time], an extra month is added periodically in order to correlate
the 354-day lunar year with the 365 1/4-day solar year. The extra month is added after the last
month [Adar].
"First month" = Nissan (Spring, time of Passover). But Jewish New Year is in the Seventh
Month [=Tishri].
Days usually begin at sunset and end at nightfall.
Many of the holidays have dual themes-- natural / agricultural as well as historical.
Introduction to Judaism Shabbat, the Sabbath General description
Observed as day of rest from weekday labour, on
Saturday:
Begins Friday at sunset and concludes Saturday
night
Biblical rationales for Sabbath:
Two reasons given in different versions of the
Decalogue:
1. Exodus 20:10: "For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Woman preparing for the Sabbath, Lord blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it." from book of Jewish customs, Amsterdam 1695
2. Deuteronomy 5:15: "And remember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the Lord thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand and by a stretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep the sabbath day.." Work Prohibition:
The Torah repeats in many places that no "work" or "labour" should be performed on the
Sabbath -- but does not define precisely what actions are included under the prohibition.
The Mishnah provides a list of 39 basic categories of prohibited actitivity. Additional restrictions
were added by the rabbis.
Description of Sabbath
Preparations on Friday:
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House‐cleaning Festive clothing Setting table for festive meal: o Wine for recitation of Kiddush (sanctification blessing) o Two loaves of bread (preferably: special ornate loaves) covered with white cloth. o
White table cloth Several Sabbath traditions based on Exodus 16, the story of the Mannah in the
wilderness.
Friday Night Laws and Customs:
At Home
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Ritual candle‐lighting at home (usually done by woman). Custom of parents blessing children at dinner table. Custom of reading "woman of valour" chapter from Proverbs 31. Recitation of Kiddush, blessing of sanctification, recited over cup of wine. Table hymns. Religious study, especially of weekly Biblical reading. At Synagogue
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Weekday Afternoon service. Kabbalat Shabbat‐‐special introductory Psalms and hymns introduced by Kabbalists of sixteenth‐
century Safed. Lekhah Dodi hymn welcomes the Sabbath as a queen. Evening Service, sung to special melodies. Abbreviated version of "Eighteen blessings" with central section devoted to the topic of the Sabbath. Sabbath day (Saturday):
• Main synagogue service of week: Most widely attended. • In addition to the normal structure of the daily Morning Service, adapted to the Sabbath theme, special features include: •
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Longer preliminary section (extra Psalms). Full reading of section from Torah. Haftarah: Concluding reading from "Prophets" section of Bible. Musaf ["Additional"] service, a special Amidah prayer on Sabbath theme. Afternoon service also includes short reading from following week's section of the Torah. Conclusion of Sabbath
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Havadalah [Separation] blessing, recited in Eighteen Blessings of Evening Service, and then again at home as a separate cermony. Includes blessings over wine, spices and fire. <a href="Sounds/Krusty‐
Shabbat.mp3">[Play Music]</a> Havdalah ceremony, Venice. 1601 Pilgrimage Festivals Name
Main Symbols and Observances
• Passover
(Pesah)
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• Feast of
Weeks
(Shavu'ot):
Preceded by
counting of the
Historical
Significance
Commemorates Refraining from leavened the Exodus of the Israelites from bread slavery in Egypt Seder (symbolic ceremonial meal), Telling and reliving the story of the Exodus from Egypt eating unleavened bread (matzah) Commemoration of receiving the Torah at Mount Sinai Natural or Social
Significance
Spring First fruits Grain harvest
fifty days of the
"'Omer"
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Tabernacles
(Sukkot):
Wanderings of Israelites' in the wilderness on their way to the Promised Land •
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Living in temporary booth Procession with "four species": palm frond, myrtle and willow branches, citron 8th‐9th days of Tabernacles • Sh'mini
Simhat Torah is celebrated by singing and Atzeret
dancing with Torah scrolls
(Eighth Day
of Assembly),
Rejoicing of
the Law
(Simhat
Torah)
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Ingathering of the crops
In the Oral tradition: The beginning of the rainy season Simhat Torah marks the conclusion and beginning of the annual cycle of reading the entire Torah Traditionally, Jewish families were supposed to travel to Jerusalem to celebrate three feasts during the year. Because of this requirement to travel to Jerusalem, these three festivals became known as the shalosh regalim (three pilgrimage festivals). These three feasts are: Pesah (Passover, The Feast o Unleavened Bread), Shavuot (The Feast of Weeks), and Sukkot (The Feast of Booths). The three pilgrimage festivals are connected with both the cycles of nature and important events in Jewish history. Pesah (Passover)
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Pesah celebrates the Exodus from Egypt and Israel's liberation from slavery. The last of the ten plagues inflicted on the Egyptians was the deaths of the first‐borns. God "passed over" the dwellings of the Israelites‐‐hence the name of the holiday. In ancient times, the celebration centred around a special sacrifice. •
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Pesah is also the festival of spring and marked the beginning of the grain harvest in Israel. Matzah, unleavened bread, was taken by the Hebrews as they hastened out of Egypt. It therefore commemorates the liberation. No leavened items may be eaten, or be found in one's possession for the duration of the holiday, A ritualized search and burning is conducted before the holiday. Seder
o
The Seder [="order"] marks the beginning of the festival and links the entire history of the Jewish people together, from the Exodus to history's messianic culmination. The Four Cups
o
Important sections of the seder service are marked by drinking cups of wine. During the meal the cup will be filled four times. The number is given symbolic interpretations; e.g., it corresponds to four promises made by God to Israel in Exodus (6:6‐7): Therefore, say to the children of Israel 'I am the Lord, and I SHALL TAKE YOU OUT from under the burdens of Egypt; I SHALL RESCUE YOU from their service; I SHALL REDEEM YOU with an outstretched arm and with great judgments. I SHALL TAKE YOU TO ME for a people and I shall be a God to you..... o
One opinion in the Talmud requiresfive cups. In most communities, an additional cup is filled and reserved for Elijah the Prophet. The special foods
o
Seven ritual foods are arranged on the table for the Seder. ƒ There are three matzot. ƒ A roasted shankbone: in remembrance of the Passover lamb. ƒ An egg: a symbol of spring or a reminder of Temple offerings. ƒ The roasted shankbone and the egg are not eaten. ƒ Sprigs of parsley: a symbol of spring, are dipped in ƒ Salt water: to represent the tears of the Israelites in Egypt ƒ Maror (bitter herbs): a reminder of the bitter life in Egypt. ƒ haroset: a mixture of apples, nuts, cinnamon and wine is served as a remembrance of the mortar made as Egyptian slaves. The Omer Weeks
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According to the Pharisaic‐Rabbinic interpretation, seven weeks are counted from the beginning of Pesah to the feast of Weeks, Shavuot. In the Bible, this ritual, the offering of a measure of barley meal, commemorates the new barley and wheat crops. Later tradition interpreted it as an anticipation of the revelation of the Torah at Mount Sinai. Shavuot, The Feast of Weeks
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Biblical festival commemorates the new wheat crop: Two wheat loaves were offered in the Temple. By Rabbinic calculations, Shavuot celebrates the giving of the Torah. Beginning of season for offering Bikkurim: offering of first fruits. Sukkot, the Feast of Booths:
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Sukkot celebrates both the fall harvest, as well as remembering the 'booth's that the Israelites lived in during the forty years in the wilderness. Rabbinic Judaism celebrated Sukkot as a water festival in anticipation of the rainy season. •
This is a festival of thanks and gratitude to God for the blessings in one's life, and the hope for continued blessings. • The building of the sukkot also symbolizes the transience of life and the assurance of God's providence. • The "four species": Palm frond, citron, myrtle and willow branches. These are carried in processions, and are subject to many symbolic interpretations. New Year and the Day of Atonement ­­ Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur Rosh Hashanah
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Main biblical source: Leviticus 23: 23 And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying,
24 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, In the seventh month, in the first day of the
month, shall ye have a sabbath, a memorial of blowing of trumpets, an holy convocation.
25 Ye shall do no servile work therein: but ye shall offer an offering made by fire unto
the Lord.
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The central ritual is the sounding of the Shofar, ram's horn: Saadia's ten reasons for sounding the Shofar:
1.
2.
3.
Coronation of a king To stir our conscience to repent. Reminiscent of God's revelation at Sinai, which was accompanied by the sounding of a shofar. 4.
Reminiscent of the exhortations of the prophets whose voices rang out like a shofar 5.
Reminds us of the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. 6.
Reminds us of the ram which Abraham offered as a sacrifice in place of his son Isaac. 7.
Summons us to the feeling of humility before God's majesty. 8.
Reminder of the Day of the Final Judgment. 9.
Foreshadows the proclamation of freedom, when Israel's exiled and homeless are to return to the Holy Land. 10.
Foreshadows the inauguration of God's reign of righteousness. •
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The Mussaf service on Rosh Hashanah has three special benedictions only used on this day, reflecting the holiday's key themes. 0. Malkhuyyot [Kingship]: God is affirmed as King of the universe. 1. Zikhronot [Remembrance]: God is depicted as the supreme Judge who recalls the deeds of all his creatures. 2. Shofarot [Trumpeting]: The imagery of the ram's horn and its many associations with revelation and redemption. Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 1:1 There are four new years.
On the first of Nisan is new year for kings and for festivals.
On the first of Elul is new year for the tithe of cattle. Rabbi Eleazar and Rabbi Simeon,
however, place this on the first of Tishri.
On the first of Tishri is new year for years, for release and jubilee years, for plantation
and for [tithe of] vegetables.
On the first of Shebat is new year for trees, according to the ruling of Beth Shammai;
Beth Hillel, however, place it on the fifteenth of that month
...At new year all creatures pass before him [God] like a regiment, as it says, "he
that fashioneth the heart of them all, that considereth all their doings."
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This celebration also honors the creation of the world, which is said to have taken place at this time. It is a time for reflection and evaluation, before God, of the year's spiritual works. Many holiday customs (such as symbolic foods) express desire for a sweet year and forgiveness. The ram's horn recalls the ram that was sacrificed instead of Isaac by Abraham. Jews appeal to God to consider the merit earned by Abraham and to apply it to his children. Imagery of Divine Judgment and Repentance [Teshuvah]
Talmud Rosh Hashanah 16b:
R. Kruspedai said in the name of R. Johanan: Three books are opened [in heaven] on New Year,
one for the thoroughly wicked, one for the thoroughly righteous, and one for the intermediate.
The thoroughly righteous are forthwith inscribed definitively in the book of life; the thoroughly
wicked are forthwith inscribed definitively in the book of death; the doom of the intermediate is
suspended from New Year till the Day of Atonement; if they deserve well, they are inscribed in
the book of life; if they do not deserve well, they are inscribed in the book of death.
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All of humanity is portrayed as being judged for their deeds of the previous year, to determine our fates for the coming year. If we are judged acccording to what we really deserve, nobody will stand a chance. Therefore we beseech God to judge according to the standard of mercy (as a loving parent), and not as a truthful judge. Humans are given until the Day of Atonement to repent sincerely, so that the negative verdict will be annulled. Teshuvah ("repentance" "return") is seen as a path back to God and humanity. o This includes an honest examination of the self; a rejection of the evil ways of the past, and the determination not to repeat one's offences next time. o White clothing and synagogue decorations are donned as symbols of innocence and a reminder of death. Days of Repentance: Preparation
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The period between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur is known as the "ten days of repentance." The penitential season has expanded from the entire month before Rosh Hashanah. The forty day period corresponds to the forty days when Moses pleaded for the people's forgiveness after they worshipped the golden calf. From the beginning of Elul, the shofar (ram's horn) is sounded every morning to call all worshippers to repent. Penitential prayers (S'lihot) are recited at morning worship. Yom Kippur, Day of Atonement
• Yom Kippur originated as a ceremony to atone for cultic impurity in the Temple. It evolved into a day of forgiveness of sin. • Imagery of the "scapegoat"‐‐The High Priest would confess the sins of the people, and symbolically place them on the head of a goat who was sent off into the wilderness. • In addition to the three normal daily services and the Additional Musaf service, there is a Ne'ilah (closing of the gates) service at dusk. • To enhance the spirituality, physical pleasures are forbidden: The following activities are prohibited: 1.
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Eating and drinking Bathing Anointing with oil Wearing shoes Sexual relations • The liturgy incorporates confessions for sins. • Kol Nidre: a formula for the annulment of religious oaths was inserted at the beginning of the evening service, because of the fear that forgiveness might be impeded by unfulfilled obligations. • Penitential prayers, S'lihot, are part of all Yom Kippur services. They are based on the "thirteen attributes of mercy" that Moses was told to recite in order to invoke divine forgiveness after the sin of the golden calf (Exodus 34:1‐7). • The Mussaf service recalls the service in the Temple when the high priest was allowed to enter the holy of Holies, the only day of the year that was allowed. • As the day ends, affirmations of the vision of God's Kingdom are given. Minor Festivals and Fasts Rosh Hodesh: The New Moon
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The beginning of each month, determined by the appearance of the new moon, is also celebrated in Rosh Hodesh. It is marked by additions to the prayers, but has few mandatory observances. In some traditions, Rosh Hodesh is celebrated especially by women. Viewing the New Moon (from a manual of Jewish customs, Amsterdam 1695) Purim: The
Feast of
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Purim is based on the book of Esther and celebrated on the 14th day of Adar. It celebrates the rescue of the Jews (under the leadership of Esther and Mordecai) from a plot (by Haman) to kill them. Major observances: 1. The reading of the Scroll of Esther (Evening and morning). 2. Exchange of gifts (food) 3. Charity for the poor 4. A festive meal held in the afternoon. A Talmudic tradition recommends drinking "until one cannot distinguish between 'Cursed is Haman' and 'Blessed is Mordecai.' European Jewish communities adopted some practices of the Christian pre‐Lent season, such as carnivals and masquerades. Hanukkah: The Feast of
Dedication
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Hanukkah begins on the 25th of Kislev. Hanukkah is observed in commemoration of the Maccabean victory over the Syrians in 168 BCE, and the rededication of the Temple that had been desecrated. According to Rabbinic interpretation, the festival celebrates the divine miracle of the flame miraculously burning in the Temple for eight days. During the festival one candle is lit on the first night, with an additional candle being lit each of the eight night. •
Traditional foods are fried in oil: Ashkenazic Jews eat potato pancakes, Sepharadic Jews eat donuts. Historical Fast Days
A series of communal fast days
commemorates stages in the destruction of
the first Temple. Fasting is observed
during daylight hours.
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Tenth of Tevet (in winter) marks the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. • The Seventeenth of Tammuz marks the beginning of the destruction of the walls of Jerusalem (by the Babylonians and later the Romans). • The fast of Gedaliah ben Ahikam (on the 3rd day of Tishrei, following Rosh Hashanah) commemorates the assassination of the last Jewish governor of Judea after the Babylonian conquest. • The major fast is the Ninth of Av (in the summer), the anniversary of the destructions of the first and secone Temples. It is a full 24+‐hour fast with mourning customs. The date is associated with several catastrophes throughout history. The three weeks between the 17th of Tammuz and the Ninth of Av are observed as a time of quasi‐mourning, especially the last nine days. Modern Days of Commemoration
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Yom Hashoah: on the 27th day of Nissan the Holocaust is remembered. It is the anniversary of the Jewish uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto. Yom Ha'azma'ut: Israel's Independence Day is celebrated on the 5th of Iyar. Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day. The 28th of Iyar, is the anniversary of the re‐unification of Jerusalem in 1967, celebrated largely by politically right‐wing religious groups in Israel Jewish Life Cycle Events:
Birth, Adulthood, Marriage, Death and Mourning Birth: Initiation into
the Covenant of
Abraham
Boys
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Circumcision is designated in the Torah as the sign of the seal of Abraham's covenant with God, and is required of his male descendents. The ritual of circumcision is called in Hebrew B'rit [=covenant] Milah. Health permitting, the circumcision is to be performed eight days after birth, even if that day fall on Shabbat or festival. The person who performs the circumcision is known as a mohel. This is the occasion when the child is given his Hebrew name. In the prevalent custom, participants are honoured as Kvaters (passing the baby) or Sandak (holding the baby) to the ceremony Girls
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There is not equivalent traditional ritual to commemorate the births of girls. In traditional communities, the father is called to the reading of the Torah shortly after the birth. On that occasion, blessings are recited for the welfare of mother and child, and the Hebrew name is given. Redemption of the Firstborn
• Because worship was originally supposed to be led by the firstborns, it is required for the parents of firstborn boys (if they are not of priestly or levitical descent) to formally "redeem" the child through the symbolic payment of a quantity of silver to a priest (Kohen). • The ceremony is usually performed when the child is thirty days old. Passage to Adulthood:
Bar Mitzvah / Bat Mitzvah
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The term means "subject to the commandments." At the age of 13 for boys, 12 for girls (when it is assumed that the person has reached physical puberty), the individual is considered an adult for many purposes in Jewish law. No ceremony is required for this, but over time ceremonial celebrations have developed in recognition of this moment. For boys, the occasion is marked primarily by participating in synagogue rituals that they could not previously perform, especially the public reading of the Torah, donning tefillin and leading religious services. It is common for the Bar / Bat Mitzvah to deliver a discourse on a religious topics that demonstrates their learning. Some modern communities have introduced a Confirmation ceremony, held at a later age (c. 16). The institution is copied from Christian usage, and reflects the recognition that adulthood does not really begin at 12 0r 13 years. "Jewish Wedding in Calgary"‐‐ painting by artist William Kurelek Note the huppah outside the old House of Jacob synagogue. Marriage
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Marriage and procreation are central expectations of Judaism. Celibacy is frowned upon. In ancient Judaism, the marriage was preceded by a betrothal (kiddushin or eirusin) that was a formal legal institution: It could only be terminated by divorce, and unfaithfulness during the •
betrothal was considered adultery. In later practice, the betrothal is generally done immediately before the wedding ceremony. The wedding ceremony is held under a canopy‐‐huppah. It symbolizes the couple leaving together in a home. [In ancient times, the huppah was not symbolic, but it referred to their actually entering their home. The Seven Wedding Blessings
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You are blessed, Lord our God, the sovereign of the world, who created everything for his glory. You are blessed, Lord our God, the sovereign of the world, the creator of man. You are blessed, Lord our God, the sovereign of the world, who created man in His image, in the pattern of His own likeness, and provided for the perpetuation of his kind. You are blessed, Lord, the creator of man. Let the barren city be jubilantly happy and joyful at her joyous reunion with her children. You are blessed, Lord, who makes Zion rejoice with her children. Let the loving couple be very happy, just as You made Your creation happy in the garden of Eden, so long ago. You are blessed, Lord, who makes the bridegroom and the bride happy. You are blessed, Lord our God, the sovereign of the world, who created joy and celebration, bridegroom and bride, rejoicing, jubilation, pleasure and delight, love and brotherhood, peace and friendship. May there soon be heard, Lord our God, in the cities of Judea and in the streets of Jerusalem, the sound of joy and the sound of celebration, the voice of a bridegroom and the voice of a bride, the happy shouting of bridegrooms from their weddings and of young men from their feasts of song. You are blessed, Lord, who makes the bridegroom and the bride rejoice together. You are blessed, Lord our God, the sovereign of the world, creator of the fruit of the vine. •
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Seven blessings [Sheva' b'rakhot] are recited over cups of wine at the wedding, and at wedding festivities throughout the following week. The arrangement is formally transacted through the groom giving the bride an object of value‐‐
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The ancient rabbis ordained that a pre‐nuptual marriage contract (ketubah) must be given to the bride. It defines the mutual obligations of the couple, and guarantees support for the wife upon termination of the marriage (whether through divorce or death). Traditional Judaism allows divorce. It must formally be contracted through the handing of a writ of divorce (get) by the husband to the wife. The court has the authority to compel the husband to grant the divorce. An illuminated Ketubbah (Marriage contract) from Rome, 1732
Death and Mourning
• Preservation of life overrides all ritual considerations. Euthenasia is not normally permitted (other than certain "passive" types). • Participation in a funeral is considered especially pious, because the beneficiary will not be able to reciprocate the kindness. People attending the funeral are expected to participate in covering the corpse with earth. • It is preferable to hold the funeral as soon as possible after the death. No lying in state. • Belief in bodily resurrection requires burial. Cremation and embalming are prohibited. Importance of communal burial societies. "Purification" (cleansing) of corpse, covering it in simple white shroud. • Mourners are required to tear their garments upon hearing of the death. • The community is required to offer consolation to the mourners. The standard formula is: May the Almighty comfort you among all the mourners for Zion and Jerusalem. • In ancient times it was common to bury the body temporarily, and afterwards to collect the bones in an ossuary placed in a family burial cave. This is no longer done. • Successive phases of mourning, decreasing in intensity: 1.
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Until funeral First seven days (shivah) First month First year • Annual commemoration of date of death of close relative • There are many diverse local customs related to funerals and mourning rites. Many morning customs were introduced during the Middle Ages, especially in Germany, and many of these have become widespread.Some examples: 1. Recitation of "Kaddish, an affirmation of faith in God, by a mourner during the year following the death‐‐believed to lessen the punishments in the afterlife. 2. Yahrtseit‐‐The anniversary of the death is remembered through the lighting of a candle and recitation of Kaddish. 3. Yizkor‐‐ Memorial prayers incorporated into the synagogue services on several festivals. The Jewish Home General Topics
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Centrality of the family as a religious setting. Division of gender roles: Are they defined by the religion, or is the religion merely regulating an existing reality? ‐‐> Should the religious norms change to respond to changed realities? ‐‐> Can change in roles and status be achieved without threatening the viability of the family? Jewish law commands and defines honour due to parents and to spouses. Mezuzah: Requirement to place Torah passages on the doorposts of the house. Deuteronomy 6:9 ...You shall write them on the door‐posts of your house, and on your gates. •
Meals as religious activities: The Talmud compares the Rolled parchment for a Mezuzah
table to the altar. Blessings recited before each type of food‐‐
acknowledging that God is the source of sustenance. Grace after meals: Expresses thanks to God for providing sustenance to all creatures; for the land; for Jerusalem and the Temple; for general favours. •
Sex life and family purity: Jewish tradition encourages sex in marriage not only for procreation. Biblical law forbids sexual relations for a week following onset of menstrual period. According to the Talmud, the women extended the prohibition to the week following the end of the period. At the conclusion of the forbidden time, the woman immerses in a purification bath (mikvah) and the couple may resume their marital relations. Ambivalent modern attitudes towards impurity rules. A Mikvah (purification bath) Jewish Dietary Laws Reasons for Dietary Laws:
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Ancient sources do not provide consistent rationales for the dietary laws. Commentators suggest a variety of possible reasons. Biblical association with "holiness"‐‐Means of separating Israel from pagan world, minimizing social interaction and possibilities of intermarriage. Form of moral self‐discipline. Hygienic and health‐related reasons. Moral symbolism (e.g., avoidance of wild beasts and fowl).* Rejection of pagan rituals. Definition of permissible species
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Species defined in the Torah (see Leviticus 11; Deuteronomy 14) 1. "Beasts of the earth" (quadrupeds) "you may eat any animal that has cloven hooves and chews its cud" (Leviticus 11:3; Deuteronomy 14:6. Permitted animals must have these two features: Includes: sheep, cattle, goats and deer are kosher. 2. "Of the things that are in the waters, you may eat anything that has fins and scales" (Leviticus 11:9; Deuteronomy 14:9). Excludes: shellfish. 3. Birds: The Torah lists forbidden birds (Leviticus 11:13‐19; Deuteronomy 14:11‐18), but does not specify why these particular birds are forbidden. All of the birds on the list are birds of prey or scavengers. Theoretically, any bird not on the forbidden list should be permitted.However, since we are no longer sure about the identifications of the biblical names, it is generally required that permission be supported by a local tradition. Includes: chicken, geese, ducks and (acording to most authorities) turkey. 4. "Winged swarming things" (winged insects). Locusts and grasshoppers are permitted if they fit the definition in(Leviticus 11:22; hosever, most Jewish communities no longer eat them. Additional Factors in the Preparation of Meat (including
Fowl)
Ritual Slaughter [Shehitah]
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Permitted mammals and birds must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law. the person who performs the slaughter is called a shohet. The method of slaughter is a quick, deep stroke across the throat with a perfectly sharp blade with no nicks or unevenness. This method is painless, causes unconsciousness within two seconds, and is claimed to be the most humane cost‐effective method of slaughter possible. The shohet is not simply a butcher; he must be a pious man, well‐trained in Jewish law, particularly as it relates to kashrut. We may not eat animals that died of natural causes (Deut. 14:21) or that were killed by other animals. In addition, the animal must have no disease or flaws in the organs at the time of slaughter. These restrictions do not apply to fish; only to the flocks and herds (Num. 11:22). Inspection of Animal's Health
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Meat is forbidden if the animal: o was diseased and died (or would soon have died) of natural causes: nevelah Inspection of certain organs is carried out after slaughter to ascertain the health of the animal. o was killed in a manner other than shehitah; e.g, by a wild beast: terefah Removal of blood
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The Torah (Leviticus 7:26‐27) prohibits the consumption of blood. Therefore the blood is allowed to drain after slaughter. An advantage of shehitah is that it ensures rapid, complete draining of the blood. Afterwards, the remaining blood is removed by means of absorbtion through coarse salt, or by broiling Removal of the Sciatic Nerve
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The sciatic nerve is removed from meat, based on the biblical story of Jacob's struggle at Jabok, where he was injured in the thigh (Genesis 32:22): "Therefore to this day the Israelites do not eat the thigh muscle that is on the hip socket, because he struck Jacob on the hip socket at the thigh muscle." Separation of Milk and Meat
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Based on threefold repetition of "thou shalt not boil a kid in its mother's milk." (Exodus 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21), the oral tradition prohibits eating meat and dairy together. (The rabbis extended this prohibition to include not eating milk and poultry together.) The separation extends to utensils, pots and pans in which meat and dairy foods are cooked, plates and flatware from which they are eaten, the dishwashers or dishpans in which they are cleaned. A traditional Jewish household will have at least two sets of pots, pans and dishes: one for meat and one for dairy. One must wait between eating meat and dairy. Opinions and local customs vary from one to six hours. Fish and eggs are not considered meat for this purpose, though the Talmud forbids eating meat and fish together for supposed health reasons. Under appropriate circumstances, it is possible to cleanse utensils (by soaking, boiling, burning, etc.) so that they may changed over from dairy to meat use or vice versa. Tithing
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According to biblical or rabbinic law, several portions must be set aside from the foodstuffs for the sake of the priests, Levites or poor. The food is forbidden until this is done. Most of these rules only apply in the Land of Israel, and some can only be performed while the laws of purity are in force. Hence, the observance of these laws in usually of a symbolic nature. Some Modern Developments in Jewish Dietary Laws
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General rejection of dietary laws by classic Reform movement. Subsequently, the atttitude has been more favourable. •
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Tendency among traditionalists to discourage hygienic or historical rationales, because they imply the laws might no longer be applicable under changed conditions. Tendency to stress ethical reasons for laws: e.g., Conservative Judaism forbids veal because of the inhumane treatment of animals. While traditional dietary laws presuppose that most food preparation took place in the home (including slaughter, etc.), food production is now done on an indistrial basis. Jewish communities and organizations issue certifications of "kosher" status. The consumer is required to check the labels of the retail products. Themes in Jewish Ethics General Features
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Jews as model to world, culminating in eventual recognition of the divine message by all humanity, and a society of justice and peace. Moral life as an essential demand of the Torah, in narratives as well as commandments. Note the Decalogue. Prophetic ideology: Ritual and holiness must be accompanied by justice and compassion. Failures in these realms were seen as the cause for the the fall of Jerusalem and for the exile. Rabbinic Judaism systematized the ethical demands into a detailed law code. Religious context imbues ethical demands with emotional passion. Requirement of equality before the law, transcending social distinctions. Importance of belief in common origins of all humanity. Religious law (unlike secular) can emphasize motivation, not only actions. Humane treatment of animals. Human dignity Some current issues and challenges
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Status of women: o egalitarianism (in civil and ritual settings) vs. sanctity of the family. o divorce and the agunah question Responsibilities of statehood: military ethics, treatment of non‐Jewish minorities. Ecological and environomental questions. Status of homosexuals. Bio‐medical issues: o Euthenasia, living wills, quality of life o definition of death; organ transplants. o Reproductive technologies: Abortion and birth control. o autopsies •
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Kosher slaughter and ethical treatment of animals. ethical status of infant circumcision. Films from the series "Heritage: Civilization and the Jews"
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/
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The Power of the Word http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode2/
The Shaping of Traditions http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode3/index.html
The Crucible of Europe http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode4/
Film: Roads from the Ghetto http://www.pbs.org/wnet/heritage/episode6/